THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


GIFT 

Reider  Sognnaes,  Dean 
School  of  Centistry 


V 


/ 


^      LIBRARY      ^'// 
^-^    209  E.  23rd  ST  = 
l4^,  Y.  CITY 


^Lcn.  :,  ...  K,-\^ 


^t:  OF  \.)\$- 


HISTORY 


OF 


DENTAL  AND  ORAL  SCIENCE 


IN     AMERICA. 


PREPARED    UNDER    DIRECTION 


OF   THE 


AMERICAN  ACADEMY  OF  DENTAL  SCIENCE. 


PHILADELPHIA": 

SAMUEL    S.   WHITE. 
1876. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1876,  by 

THE    AMERICAN    ACADEMY    OF    DENTAL   SCIENCE, 

In  the  OflBce  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress  at  Washington. 


N.  V. 


CITY 


// 


PREFACE. 


At  the  monthly  meeting,  December,  1875,  of  the  "American 
Academy  of  Dental  Science,"  Dr.  D.  M.  Parker,  member  of  the 
Centennial  Board  of  State  Managers,  and  President  of  the  Academy, 
in  the  Chair,  it  was  voted  unanimously  that  the  Academy  endeavor 
to  present  in  some  suitable  manner  the  claims  of  Dentistry — or, 
more  j)roperly,  of  Oral  Science — at  the  then  coming  Centennial 
Exhibition  at  Philadelphia. 

A  Committee  was  appointed  to  make  the  necessary  arrangements, 
and  weekly  meetings  were  held  from  that  time.  In  the  month  of 
February  an  arrangement  Avas  entered  into  with  Mr.  James  E. 
Dexter,  of  New  York,  to  collect  and  put  into  readable  form  such 
materials  of  historical  value  as  could  be  obtained,  in  order  to  present 
an  historical  volume  on  American  dentistry.  In  April  an  address 
was  published  in  the  dental  periodicals  calling  upon  the  general 
profession  for  such  assistance  as  they  could  render.  It  was  as 
follows : 

"  To  the  Dental  Profession. 

"The  American  Academy  of  Dental  Science,  Boston,  Mass.,  design 
I)resenting  to  the  profession  and  the  public,  at  the  approaching  Cen- 
tennial, a  view  of  American  dentistiy,  past  and  present. 

"  One  of  the  characteristics  of  this  presentation  will  be,  a  history 
of  the  profession  in  this  country  for  the  past  one  hundred  years. 
This  work,  being  designed  to  become  a  standard  of  reference,  will 
be  comprehensive  and  complete  in  detail. 

"  To  the  end  that  tliis  desirable  result  may  be  attained,  the  com- 


ii  PREFACE. 

mittce  in  charge  respectfully  request  the  aid  of  all  dentists  (and 
others)  in  furnishing  information  of  every  kind  necessary  to  the 
work.  Below  will  be  found  a  list  designed  to  afford  a  general  idea 
of  the  kinds  of  information  needed.  On  these  and  kindred  subjects, 
and,  indeed,  on  any  subject  connected  with  the  profession,  nothing 
will  be  regarded  as  too  small  or  insignificant  to  be  of  value. 

"  If  desired,  any  material  received  will  be  carefully  preserved  and 
retiu-ned  to  the  sender  after  use.  To  facilitate  this,  as  well  as  to 
insure  credit  being  properly  given,  everything  should  be  marked 
with  the  name  and  address  of  the  sender. 

"  The  Committee  are  persuaded  that  the  importance  of  such  a  work 
to  the  profession  can  hardly  be  overrated.  Several  small  works, 
able  as  far  as  they  extend,  have  been  put  forth ;  but  as  yet  nothing 
on  the  scale  laid  out  for  this  work  has  appeared.  The  Committee 
feel  assured,  therefore,  that  they  can  rely  on  the  hearty  co-operation 
of  the  profession  in  furnishing  the  information  above  mentioned. 

"List  of  Subjects. 

"Biography,  literature,  societies,  colleges,  individuals,  meclianical 
and  operative  dentistry,  discoveries  in  any  branch  of  the  profession, 
materia  medica,  prominent  events  (with  dates),  prominent  questions, 
inventions,  patents,  anecdotes,  sayings,  historical  facts,  obituaries, 
addresses,  papers,  published  and  unpublished  works,  etc.,  etc. 

"Address  communications  and  material  to  George  T.  MofFatt, 
M.D.,  No.  1,  Hotel  Boylston,  Boston,  Mass.;  or  to  James  E. 
Dexter,*  Care  W.  A.  Bronson,  M.D.,  Xo.  8  East  34th  Street,  New 
York  city. 

" Adrlsori/   ( 'ommittce. 

"  Dr.  A.  L.  Northroj),  New  York  ;  Dr.  W.  W.  Allport,  Ciiicago  ; 
Dr.  P.  H.  Austen,  Baltimore  ;  Dr.  R.  Arthur,  Baltimore;  Dr.  J.  H. 
McQuillcn,  Philadelphia ;  Dr.  Edward  Maynard,  Washington  ;  Dr. 
X.  W.  Kingsley,  Xew  York ;  Dr.  J.  Taft,  Cincinnati ;  Dr.  E.  B. 
Gardctte,  Philadelphia;  Dr.  J.  S.  Knapp,  New  Orleans;  Dr.  J.  W. 
White,  Philadelphia;  Dr.  H.  S.  Chase,  St.  Louis;  Dr.  S.  A.  Bemis, 
Boston. 


I»Rf:FACE. 


"Local  Committee. 


"Dr.  J.  L.  Williams  (Chairman),  No.  1  Mt.  Vernon  Street, 
Boston  ;  Di-.  D.  M.  Parker,  No.  132  Boylston  Street,  Boston ;  Dr. 
Joshua  Tucker,  Hotel  Boylston,  Boston ;  Dr.  E.  G.  Tucker,  Ashbur- 
ton  Place,  Boston ;  Dr.  T.  H.  Chandler,  No.  222  Tremont  Street, 
Boston  ;  Dr.  E.  N.  Harris,  No.  597  Tremont  Street,  Boston ;  Dr. 
W.  W.  Codman,  No.  33  Boylston  Street,  Boston ;  Dr.  L.  D.  Shep- 
ard.  Hotel  Boylston,  Boston;  Dr.  F.  N.  Seabury,  Providence,  R.  I.; 
Dr.  H.  F.  Bishop,  Worcester,  INIass. ;  Dr.  Geo.  T.  Moffiitt  (Secre- 
tary of  Committee),  No.  1,  Hotel  Boylston,  Boston,  Mass." 

In  response  to  the  above,  historical  material  was,  to  some  extent, 
voluntarily  forAvarded.  The  greatest  portion  of  matter,  however, 
ultimately  came  in  response  to  personal  requests  by  Mr.  Dexter  and 
the  members  of  the  committee ;  but  the  material  thus  collected  has 
been,  on  the  whole,  small  in  amount.  This  has  made  much  more 
difficult,  and  has  greatly  retarded,  the  preparation  of  the  work ;  the 
comparatively  early  appearance  of  which  is  due  chiefly  to  the  untiring 
exertions  of  Mr.  Dexter.  Immediately  upon  his  engagement  he 
beo-an  with  viy;or  to  carry  out  his  task.  The  short  time  he  consumed 
in  arranging  and  completing  the  work  gives  evidence  of  unremitting 
and  well-directed  labor. 

The  bool^  has,  perforce,  been  hastily  written;  but,  as  far  as  possi- 
ble, no  exertion  has  been  spared  to  insure  its  accuracy.  The  com- 
mittee has  labored  diligently  and  earnestly  in  the  revision  of  Mr. 
Dexter's  manuscript;  and  it  is  thought  few  errors  of  statement  will 
be  found.  Expression  of  opinion  by  the  writer  or  committee  has 
been  sought  to  be  scrupulously  avoided,  and  no  unnecessary  criticism 
of  persons,  books,  or  methods  has  been  admitted  ;  the  effort  being  to 
make  the  work  strictly  historical,  and  in  no  sense  didactic.  That  it 
contains  all  the  facts  cannot  be  hoped  ;  but  that  most  of  its  contents 
will  be  thought  worthy  of  a  place  in  history,  that  it  will  prove  of 
interest  to  the  present  generation  in  enlightening  them  as  to  the 
work  of  their  predecessors,  and  that  it  will  be  of  value  to  the  future- 


IV 


PREFACE. 


historian  and  essayist  in  directing  him  to  sources  of  information,  and 
as  a  preservative  of  the  fast-vanishing  facts  of  the  earlier  days  of 
American  dentistry,  is  fully  believed. 

Indulgence  is  asked  for  the  extreme  condensation  it  exhibits, — 
extending  even  to  the  exclusion  of  many  things  which  might  prop- 
erly have  their  places  in  its  pages,  and  to  the  according  of  but  a 
passing  notice  to  others  of  importance.  This  has  been  caused  by 
the  necessities  of  the  time  used, — little  more  than  four  months 
having  been  occupied  on  the  work,  from  the  inception  of  the  enter- 
prise to  its  completion  in  its  present  form. 

To  those  gentlemen  who  have  so  cordially  and  promptly  aided 
them  with  materials  for  the  work,  the  committee  and  the  writer 
desire  to  present  their  grateful  acknowledgments.  Particularly  are 
they  indebted  to  Drs.  A.  L.  Northrop  and  W.  A.  Bronson,  of  New 
York  city,  for  their  generous  permission  to  Mr.  Dexter  to  use  their 
libraries,  and  for  other  facilities  afforded  by  them;  and  to  Drs.  W. 
C.  Barrett,  of  Buffalo,  and  J.  W.  White,  C.  N.  Peirce,  and  T.  I.. 
Buckingham,  of  Philadelphia,  for  much  valuable  matter. 

It  is  sincerely  hoped  that  the  work,  the  result  of  our  combined 
efforts,  will  meet  the  approbation  of  the  profession ;  to  whom,  indi- 
vidually and  collectively,  it  is  cordially  dedicated  by 

The  American  Academy  of  Dental  Science. 
Boston,  June,  1876. 


CONTENTS. 


INTKOBUCTION. 

Ancient  Dentistry — Dentistry  about  177G — First  Dentist  in  America  pp.  1-6 

THE   FOUNDERS   OF  AMERICAN   DENTISTRY. 

Earliest  Dentists — Joseph  Lemaire— Whitelock — Isaac  Greenwood — Clark 
Greenwood — Josiah  Flagg — James  Gardette — John  Greenwood — Horace 
H.  Hayden — Edward  Hudson — John  Randall— Leonard  Koecker  pp.  7-lG 

MECHANICAL  DENTISTRY, 

ARTIFICIAL   TEETH. 

Human  Teeth — Animal  Teeth — Hippopotamus  Teeth — Elephant  Ivory — 
Bone — Porcelain  Teeth — First  Manufacturers — Old  Recipes — S.  W. 
Stockton— James  Alcock — Elias  Wildman — S.  S.  White      .         .         pp.  17-26 

BASE   PLATES. 

Ivory  and  Bone — Gold — Silver — Platinum — Aluminum — Other  Metals — 
Poured  Tin  —  Cheoplasty — Gutta-Percha — Vulcanite — The  Vulcanite 
Litigation — Collodion — Rose-Pearl — Celluloid — Porcelain  .         .         pp.  26-35 

ATTACHING   ARTIFICIAL    TEETH    TO   BASES. 

Riveting — "With  Sulphur — Backing  and  Soldering — The  Pin — Continuous 
Gum — Early  Attempts — Gum  Teeth — Thomas  Harrison — John  Allen — 
William  M.  Hunter  —  The  Allen-Hunter  Suit  —  Vulcanite — Poured 
Tin — Amalgam      ..........         pp.  35-40 

SECURING   ARTIFICIAL   DENTURES    IN    THE   MOUTH. 

Old  Methods — Pivoting — Hollow  and  Channeled  J*ivots — Pivot  Counter- 
drill —  Pivot  Files — Vulcanite — Oxychloride — Gold  Filling — Clasps — 
Leaded  Plates — Springs — Co-adaptation — Atmospheric  Pressure — Har- 
ris's Air-Chamber — Riggs's  Chambered  Plate — Johnson's,  Cleaveland's, 
Gilbert's  Cavity  Plates — Flagg's  Lateral  Cavity  Plate — Dwinelle's 
Valve — Harnett's  Engraved  Suction  Plate pp.  40-46 

V 


vi  CONTENTS. 


THE    LABORATORY. 

Impressions— Wiix  — Planter— Giitta-Perclia  — Compositions  — Casts  and 
Dies— Hawes's  Flask — Antagonizing  Casts — Articulators- Furnaces  and 
Muffles- Blow-pipe — Vulcanizers — Celluloid  Apparatus— The  Lathe — 
Grinding  Wheels pp.  46-50 


OPERATIVE   DENTISTRY. 

SIMPLE    METALLIC    FILLINGS. 

Ancient — Lead  —  Gold  —  Its  Introduction  —  First  Forms  —  First  Dental 
Gold  Foil  Manufactory — Pellets — Ropes — Ribbons— Cylinders — Cush- 
man's  Condensing  Instrument — Blocks  —  Crimped  Foil  —  Amount  of 
Gold  Foil  used  about  1850 — Sponge  Gold — Cohesive  Foil — Retaining 
Pits,-Serrated  Plugger-Points — Range  of  Weight  of  Gold  Foil — Plat- 
inum—Silver— Tin         .        ■ pp.  51-59 

PLASTIC   FILLINGS. 

The  Gums — Terro-Metallic  Cement — Anodyne  Cement — Fusible  Metals — 
Asbestos — Amalgam — Its  Introduction — M.  Taveau's — Evans's — Town- 
send's — Other  Forms — The  Amalgam  War — Its  Initiation — The  Craw- 
cours  —  Their  Practice — Opposition  to — American  Society  of  Dental 
Surgeons  on — Mississippi  Valley  Association  of  Dental  Surgeons  on — 
Investigation  by  American  Society  of  Dental  Surgeons — The  Amalgam 
Pledge — The  Virginia  Society  of  Dental  Surgeons  on — "  Pledge"  Reso- 
lutions rescinded — Close  of  the  Contest — Gutta-Percha — Hill's  Stojiping 
— Others— Oxychloride  of  Zinc     .......         pp   59-73 


TREATMENT  OF  THE  DENTAL  PULP. 

Early  Practice — Arsenious  Acid — Extirpation — Capping — Hullihen's  Op- 
eration— Allporl's  0]ieralion  .......         pp.  73-78 

ANAESTHETICS. 
Nitrous  Oxide — Discovery — Ether — Morton  and  Jackson — Chloroform — 
Bichloride  of  Methylene — Tetrachloride  of  Carbon — Local  Anaesthesia — 
Electrical  Anaesthesia f      pp.  78-90 

MATERIA    MEDICA. 
Early  Remedies — Modern  Remedies pp.  90-100 

EXTRACTION   AND   TRANSPLANTATION. 

Extraction — Early  Practice — Parmly — Koeckor — Fitch — Harris — Trans- 
plantation— Hunter — Lemafre — Gardette — Replantation  .     pp.  100-105 

FILI.NG    AND    REGULATING. 
Filing — Early    Practice — Woofendale — Flagg— Spooner — Modern    Prac- 
tice          pp.  105-108 


COjSTEXTS.  Vll 


IRREGULARITIES. 
Woofendale  —  James  —  Parmly — Koecker  —  Spooner — Harris — Tucker — 
Dwinelle  pp.  108-111 

MECHANICAL   DEVICES. 

Drying  Mouth  and  Cavities. 

Early  Practice — Fitch — The  Napkin — Paper — "Wax  Coffer-Dam — Saliva- 
Purnp — Arthur's — Dibble's — Fisk  Ejector — Duct-Compressors — Tongue- 
Holders — Air-Syringe — Arthur's  Kubber  Tubes — Lord's  String-Dam — 
Allen's  Dam — Barnum's  Rubber  Dam       .....         pp.  111-114 

Cutting  and  Drilling  Instruments. 

Differences  in  Ancient  and  Modern  Forms — The  Drill — The  Drill-Stock — 
Flagg's  —  Maynard's  —  Spencer's  —  Chevalier's  —  Alfred's  —  Dubs's  — 
Lewis's — Thackston's — Merry's — Green's  Pneumatic  Engine — The  Mor- 
rison Engine — Beers's  Engine — Bonwill's  Engine — Elliot's  Suspension 
Engine — S.  S.  White's  Engine — Green's  Electric  Drill — Water  Motors 
—Electrical  Motors pp.  114-120 

Files,  Wheels,  DisJcs. 

Townsend's — Harris's  — File-Carriers — Westcott's  —  Chevalier's — Starr's 
Ensrine — Wheels  and  Disks — Early  Forms — Northrop'.s — Arthur's — 
Bon\viir.< — Hickman's  Disk-Carrier — White's  Disk-Carrier     .         pp.  120-122 

Filling  Instruments. 

Early  Forms— Sponge  Gold — Plugging  Forceps — White's  Dynamometer — 
Serrated   Points — The  Mallet — Its  Introduction — Automatic  Mallets — 
Foote's — Taylor's — Hodge's — Salmon's — Snow   &   Lewis's — Baxter's — 
Pomeroy's — Bannister's — Green's — Gaylord's — Buckingham's — Greon^-^ 
Electric— Bonwill's— Jack's— Webb's pp.  122-I"25 

Instruments  /or  Extraction. 

Ancient  Forms  —  The  Pelican  —  The  Key  —  The  Forceps  —  Flagg's — 
Physick's  —  Maynard's  —  Elliot's — HuUihen's  Screw  Forceps — Cheva- 
lier's— Dubs's — Colburn's — The  Screw — Dickinson's         .         .         pp.  125-127 

The  Operating  Chair. 

Old  Forms — Hanchett's  —  Searle's  —  Eccleston's  —  Chevalier's  —  Modern 

Forms pp.  128-129 

TREATMENT   OF  THE   MORE  IMPORTANT  DISEASES,  INJU- 
RIES, AND  NATURAL  DEFECTS  OF  THE  ORAL  CAVITY. 

« 

Early  Dental  Surgery — Diseases  of  the  Antrum — Woofendale — James — 
Parmly  —  Flagg — Koecker  — Tumors  — Bond  — Harris — HuUihcn  —  An 
Operation — Palatine  Defects — Earlj'  Authors — Harris — Obturators — 
Artificial  Palates  and  Velums — Delabarre's — HuUihen's — Stcnrns's — 
Kingsley's  ...........         ])p.  130-141 


viii  CONTENTS. 

DENTAL  ASSOCIATIONS. 

ORIGINAL   AND   REPRESENTATIVE    BODIES. 

Early  Plans — New  York  Society  of  Dental  Surgeons — Dental  Association 
of  Western  New  York — American  Society  of  Dental  Surgeons  ;  its 
Constitution — First  Officers — Virginia  Society  of  Surgeon  Dentists — 
Mississippi  Valley  Association  of  Dental  Surgeons — Society  of  Dental 
Surgeons  of  the  State  of  New  York — American  Dental  Convention — 
American  Dental  Association  pp.  142-158 

GENERAL    STATISTICS. 
Various  Societies pp.  158-178 

DENTAL  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES. 

Early  Methods  of  Education — Baltimore  College  of  Dental  Surgery — Ohio 
Dental  College— Transylvania  School  of  Dental  Surgery — New  York 
College  of  Dental  Surgery — Philadelphia  College  of  Dental  Surgery — 
Pennsylvania Collegeof  Dental  Surgery — Philadelphia  Dental  College — 
New  York  College  of  Dentistry — Missouri  Dental  College — New  Orleans 
Dental  College — Dental  School  of  Harvard  University — Boston  Dental 
College — Maryland  Dental  College — Dental  College  of  Michigan  Uni- 
versity— University  of  California — St.  Louis  Dental  College    .         pp.  179-196 

DENTAL   LEGISLATION. 

Alabama — New  York — Ohio — Georgia — New  Jersey — Pennsylvania. 

pp.  197-214 

DENTAL   LITERATURE. 

STANDARD    WORKS. 
Dental  Works  to  Date pp.  215-229 

PERIODICALS. 
Account  of,  to  Date pp.  229-236 

DENTAL   EDUCATION. 

Early  Methods — Early  Scarcity  of  Competent  Dentists — Prices  of  Pupil- 
age— Character  of  Earlier  Practitioners — American  Journal  of  Dental 
Science  —  Establishment  of  Colleges  —  Their  Work  —  Objections  to 
them— Other  Schemes— E.  B.  Gardette's— B.  Wood's — Westcott's — J. 
Smith  Dodge,  Jr. 's— Modern  Opinions  and  Theories  .         .         pp.  236-270 

Table  of  Dental  Census p.  271 


/^       LIBRARY       '^'^ 
^    209  e.  23rd  ST. 


vO. 


N.  Y.   Gi TY 


^^%  OF  DtHi^^'" 


THE    HISTORY 


OF 


AMERICAN  DENTISTRY. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  first  appearance  of  Dentistry  as  a  specialty  of  medicine  occnrs 
at  a  very  remote  period.  Herodotus  (500  B.C.),  in  narrating  his 
ti'avels  through  Egypt,  then  one  of  the  greatest  and  most  highly 
civilized  nations  of  the  world,  the  "  mother  of  the  arts  and  sciences," 
notices  the  division  of  medicine  in  that  kingdom  into  special  branches, 
and  the  existence  of  physicians,  each  of  whom  "applies  himself  to 
one  disease  only  and  not  more.  Some  (physicians)  are  for  the  eyes, 
others  for  the  head,  others  for  the  teeth,  and  others  for  internal  dis- 
orders." *  How  far  these  physicians  had  advanced  in  the  science  of 
their  profession  is  not  known.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  their 
knowledge  was  limited,  as  well  as  their  practice ;  the  latter,  indeed, 
being  circumscribed  by  enforced  adherence  to  certain  remedies  and 
formulas  fixed  by  law,  on  pain  of  death  for  any  transgression  of  the 
limits. 

In  the  art  of  Dentistry,  if  we  are  to  believe  the  various  antiquaries 
and  discoverers  of  modern  times,  the  Egyptians  were  far  advanced ; 
for,  as  related  by  many,  teeth  filled  with  gold  have  been  discovered  in 
the  mouths  of  mummies ;  and  sudi  teeth  have  even  been  deposited 
in  home  museums,  where  they  now  remain.  A  collection  in  Liver- 
pool is  said  to  contain,  besides  artificial  teeth,  "two  teeth  of  syca- 
more wood  set  in  gold."  Accounts  have  also  been  received  of  the 
finding  of  gold-filled  teeth  in  mummies  from  Thebes.  These  gold 
fillings,  perhaps,  will  eventually  ])rove  to  be  merely  gilded  icood ; 
for  it  is  well   known  that  tlie  higher  orders  of  Egyptians  often 

*  Herodotus,  II.  84. 
2 


2  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

caused  the  imiinmies  of  their  deceased  friends  and  relatives  to  bo 
lavishly  decorated  with  paint  and  gilding.  Indeed,  several  instances 
of  supposed  Egy|)tiaii  gold  lillings  have  already,  through  the  agency 
of  a  knife-blade,  been  proved  to  be  mere  gilding  on  the  natural  teeth. 

The  insertion  of  artificial  teeth,  however,  has  been  long  practiced. 
The  Hindoos  and  Egyj)tians  are  the  first  recorded  in  this  branch  of 
dentistry.  Bclzoni  and  others  have  found  artificial  teeth  of  sycamore 
wood  in  ancient  sarcophagi.  The  mode  of  fastening  was  by  ligatures 
or  bands  of  cord,  or  gold  or  silver  wire,  tying  the  substitute  to  its 
natural  neighbors.  The  tenth  of  the  celebrated  (Greek)  Laws  of  the 
Twelve  Tables  (relating  to  funeral  ceremonies)  has,  among  others, 
this  direction :  "  Let  no  gold  be  used,  but  if  any  one  has  had  his  teeth 
fiistcncd  with  gold,  let  it  be  lawful  to  bury  or  burn  that  gold  with  the 
body." 

Ancient  Greece  is  celebrated  as  having  been  the  nursery  of  modern 
medicine.  The  medical  schools  of  Cnidos,  Cos,  Rhodes,  Cyrene,  and 
Croton  date  from  or  about  500  or  400  B.C.  These  insured  the  pro- 
gress of  medical  science,  under  tolerably  liberal  codes  of  laws,  and 
aided  by  the  then  rapid  growth  of  civilization. 

Hippocrates)  500  B.C.),  the  "  father  of  medicine,"  was  also  the  first 
to  enter  deeply  into  the  study  of  the  teeth.  His  doctrines  in  this 
regard  are  now  sufficiently  familiar  to  the  student.  Aristotle  wrote 
largely  about  350  B.C.  Heraclidus  of  Tareutum,  Herophilus,  and 
Erasistratus  are  recorded  as  dental  oj)erators  (300  B.C.).  The  latter 
deposited  in  the  temple  of  the  Delphian  Apollo  a  "  leaden  ondonto- 
gogue,  which  we  should  call  a  tooth-drawer"  (forceps),  ...  "to 
prove  that  (only)  those  teeth  ought  to  be  removed  which  are  loose  or 
relaxed,  and  for  which  a  leadeii  instrument  will  suffice."  * 

The  two  latter  are,  we  believe,  the  first  recorded  as  having  dissected 
the  human  cadaver.  The  Emperor  Alexander,  to  Avhose  court  they 
were  attached,  delivered  over  to  their  tender  mercies  such  criminals 
as  were  condemned  to  death.  On  the  first  of  these  occasions,  the 
emperor  and  his  whole  court  were  present.  The  operation  performed 
was  the  amputation  of  an  :u-m  ;  and  because  the  man  survived,  many 
of  the  court  fled  in  terror,  believing  him  to  be  an  immortal.  Such 
being  the  extent  of  the  knowledge  then  possessed  by  cultivated  per- 
sons as  to  the  effects  of  hurts  on  the  body,  we  may  in  it  find  an 
indication  of  the  j)rol)iible  amount  of  physiological  knowledge  of  the 
physicians  themselves. 

*  C.  Aurolinus. 


INTRODUCTIOX.  6 

Celsus  lived  about  100  B.C.  He  was  the  first  to  recommend  the 
use  of  the  file  in  the  mouth ;  saying,  that  the  points  of  a  decayed 
tooth,  which  hurt  the  tongue,  should  be  removed  with  an  iron  file. 

Galen  (a.d.  150)  has  treated  the  subject  of  the  teeth  more  exten- 
sively than  any  other  of  the  ancient  authors.  He  taught  that  they 
were  true  bones,  that  they  were  formed  in  the  foetus,  but  did  not  be- 
come apparent  until  after  birth,  and  even  declared  tliat  the  canine 
should  be  called  eye  teeth,  because  they  received  branches  from  that 
nerve  which  also  supplies  the  eye. 

^tius  (Arabian,  A.d.  300)  discovered  the  foramina  in  the  roots 
through  which  the  nerves  and  vessels  enter.  Albacasis,  another 
Arabian  physician  (about  1100  a.d,),  gave  rules  for  the  reidacement 
of  lost  teeth  by  substitutes,  both  natural  and  of  animal  bone  or  ivory. 

Some  extracts  from  a  curious  and  rare  old  work,  by  "Helkiah 
Crooke,  Doctor  in  Physicke,"  published  in  London  in  1618,  will  be 
of  interest  as  slightly  indicating  the  character  and  extent  of  the 
physiological  knowledge  of  that  time. 

"  That  they  (the  teeth)  are  bones  some  men  do  deny,  first,  because 
bones  are  insensible,  the  teeth  sensible.  Secondly,  because  the  bones 
have  ccrtaine  limits  of  action  or  increase,  neyther  do  they  ever  grow 
againe  if  they  perish,  but  in  teeth  it  is  quite  contrary.  Thirdly,  be- 
cause they  are  harder  than  other  bones.  Fourthly,  because  bones 
exposed  to  the  ayre  do  grow  blacke,  whereas  the  teeth  do  keepe  their 
whitenesse.  .  .  .  Finally,  say  they,  there  is  a  stone  that  will  consume 
fleshe,  called  therefore  Sarcophagus,  which  within  forty  days  will  de- 
vour the  whole  body  except  the  teeth.  If  therefore  the  teeth  were 
of  the  nature  of  bones,  they  also  would  be  consumed. 

"  They  were  made  very  hard  that  they  might  not  weare  so  soone 
or  be  br(^ken  in  the  chawing  or  breaking  of  hard  things,  for  they  are 
not  lined  eyther  with  fatte  or  gristles  as  other  ioynts  are  to  hinder 
attrition.  The  teeth  therefore  do  breake  bones,  resist  the  edge  of 
Steele,  neyther  can  they  easily  as  other  parts  of  the  body  be  burnt 
with  fire.  Hippocrates  in  his  booke  '  De  Carnibus'  ascribcth  the 
cause  of  their  hardnesse  to  the  quality  of  the  matter  out  of  whicli 
they  are  ingendered,  for  hec  writeth  that  out  of  the  bones  of  the  head 
and  the  iaws  there  is  an  increase  of  a  glutinous  matter.  In  that 
glutinous  matter  the  fatty  part  falleth  downe  into  the  sockers  of  the 
gums  where  it  is  dryed  and  burnt  with  the  heate,  and  so  the  teeth 
arc  mide  harder  than  other  bones  because  there  is  no  cold  remaining 
in  them." 

With  the  later  autliors  on  this  subject  all  may  be  supposed  to  be 


4  HISTOPwY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

more  or  le?;.s  acqiKiinted.  Indwd,  the  al)ove  liave  been  mentioned 
less  for  information  than  to  ])()int  out  the  inconsiderable  germ  and 
slow  first  growth  of  that  wliirh  has  since  expanded  into  modern 
dentistiy. 

At  the  last  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  anatomy  and 
physiology  of  the  teeth  had  become  almost  as  accurately  and  com- 
pletely demonstrated  ;is  it  is  at  this  day.  A  survey  of  the  labors  of 
scientists  since  Pare,  Hunter,  Fox,  Bell,  and  Nasmyth  will,  it  is  be- 
lieved, yield  comparatively  little  of  important  discovery.  It  is  true 
that  the  general  scientific  understanding  of  these  subjects  has  become 
more  correct  and  comprehensive.  But  the  advance  of  theory  has  not 
been  equally  rapid  with  that  of  practical  knowledge  and  attainments. 

In  the  latter  particulars  there  was  then,  certainly,  a  wide  field  for 
improvement;  and  no  one  need  now  be  told  that  the  field  has  been 
well  utilized.  A  glance  at  the  then  condition  of  mechanical  and 
operative  dentistry  will  quickly  reveal  the  measure  of  progress. 

At  the  introduction  of  mineral  teeth  in  France,  about  1774—76, 
general  dentistry  used  for  its  artificial  substitutes  elephant  and  hippo- 
potamus ivory,  and  animal  and  extracted  human  teeth.  The  latter 
variety,  although  by  very  far  tlie  most  durable  and  comely,  and 
adapted  with  the  greatest  facilit}',  was  expensive  and  difficult  to  ob- 
tain in  sufficient  quantity,  and  also  met  with  a  general  and  natural 
prejudice  against  it  on  the  part  of  the  public ;  for  it  was  said  that 
disea'^es  were  liable  to  be  introduced  into  the  wearer's  system  by 
them. 

Animal  teeth  (those  of  sheep  and  cattle,  principally),  although  of  a 
l)rilliant  color,  were  not  easy  of  adaptation  to  the  human  mouth;  and, 
as  one  side  was  devoid  of  enamel, — the  tooth  becoming  there  rapidly 
corroded, — and  as  tlie  ])ul])-cavities  were  so  large  that  the  crowns 
were  soon  worn  through,  this  variety  was  also  generally  discarded, 
leaving  the  field  clear  to  the  elephant  and  hippopotamus  ivory; 
which  were  sufficiently  cheap  and  plentiful  (especially  the  former), 
and  easily  carved  and  adaj)te(l. 

The  base,  as  avcII  as  tlie  teeth,  was  then  of  ivory  (there  are  accounts 
of  voodrii  bases!),  the  teeth  and  base  being  generally  carved  from  one 
block.  Such  operators  as  were  unusually  nice  in  their  processes  en- 
deavored to  obtain  some  exactness  in  adaptation,  and  submitted  their 
work,  from  time  to  time,  to  the  correction  and  guide  of  colored  im- 
pressions of  the  surface  it  was  intended  to  cover.  But  the  great 
majority  of  operations  were  roughly  performed,  with  little  attention 
to  correct  fitting,  or  the  exact  position  of  the  surrounding  parts. 


INTRODUCTION.  & 

Such  teeth  and  such  plates  could,  of  course,  possess  only  slight 
permanence,  both  because  of  their  great  permeability  to  the  fluids  of 
the  mouth  and  loss  of  substance  from  abrasion.  Of  the  former  ob- 
jection Harris  says,  "They  give  to  the  air  returned  from  the  lungs 
an  insufferably  offensive  odor,  which  cannot  be  corrected  or  prevented. 
They  may  be  washed  half  a  dozen  times  a  day,  and  taken  out  and 
cleansed  at  night,  but  it  Mill  still  be  grossly  perceptible;  and,  although 
it  may  be  much  worse  in  some  mouths  than  in  others,  none  who  wear 
teeth  formed  from  this  substance  are  entirely  free  from  it."* 

Such  of  the  operations  of  dentistry  as  it  was  imperatively  necessary 
to  perform  were  conducted  by  the  medical  and  surgical  practitioners, 
themselves  few  and  residing  niainl}"  in  the  cities  and  larger  towns, 
and  wanting  in  almost  all  the  knowledge  now  considered  an  absolute 
necessity  to  the  dentist.  Indeed,  tooth-fZra?^m^  was  almost  the  only 
part  of  dentistry  then  practiced  by  physicians,  and  appears  to  have 
been  the  very  general  remedy  for  ailments  of  the  teeth,  no  matter  of 
what  character.  The  key  was,  until  quite  a  recent  period,  the  prin- 
cipal instrument  used,  the  punch  and  elevator  being  its  adjuncts;  and 
multitudinous  were  the  operations  performed  by  these, — operations 
which,  at  the  present  day,  would  be  correctly  styled  "heroic  surgery." 
Fractures  of  the  alveolus,  and  even  of  the  jaw,  were  not  uncommon ; 
and  in  such  cases  (when  performed  by  dentists)  the  patient  was  re- 
manded to  nature  or  the  family  physician  for  treatment. 

In  October  of  the  year  1766  there  arrived  in  the  United  States 
from  England  Mr.  John  Woofendale.  This  gentleman  was  a  (for 
that  time)  regularly  educated  dentist,  having  been  instructed  by  Mr. 
Thomas  Berdmore,  dentist  to  George  III.  He  is  the  first  dentist, 
so  called  and  practicing  as  such,  of  M'hom  any  record  can  be  found 
as  having  visited  this  country. 

]\Ir.  Woofendale  commenced  practice  in  New  York  soon  after  he 
arrived.  He  also  practiced  in  Philadelphia.  But,  either  because  he 
did  not  receive  sufficient  practical  encouragement  in  his  profession,  or 
from  some  other  and  unexplained  cause,  he  returned  to  England, — 
March,  1768.  While  here  he  had  coiistructed  an  entire  double  set 
of  artificial  teeth  for  Mr.  William  Walton,  of  New  York;  which  is 
believed  to  be  the  first  recorded  full  set  of  teeth  inserted  in  America. 
From  the  time  when  Mr.  Woofendale  returned  to  England  until 
some  years  after  the  Declaration  of  Independence  there  was  not,  as 
far  as  can  be  discovered,  a  regularly  practicing  dentist  in  this  country. 

*  Dictionary  of  Dental  Science,  p.  07. 


6  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAN   DENTISTRY. 

Sucli,  in  brief",  was  the  general  state  of  dentistry  at  the  birth-time 
of  our  republic.  When  we  look  back  to  that  condition  of  the 
science,  we  may  and  do  experience  a  just  feeling  of  pride,  and  per- 
ceive matter  for  gratulation  in  the  giant  strides  of  improvement 
made  manifest  by  the  slightest  comparison  of  tlien  and  now.  Such  a 
retrospect  is  the  best  and  surest  means  of  encouragement  to  continue 
in  the  ])ath  by  Avhich  we  have  so  rapidly  and  agreeably  advanced ; 
and  will  ensure,  it  is  certain,  a  further  and  equally  great  elevation  of 
our  profession  among  the  liberal  sciences  in  the  future. 


THE  FOUNDERS  OF  AMERICAN  DENTISTRY. 

Although  this  work  is  not  intended  to  be  in  any  sense  biographi- 
cal, yet  it  seems  proper  to  make  some  particular  allusion  to  those 
dentists  who  were  the  pioneers  of  the  profession  in  this  country,  and 
who  laid,  solidly  and  durably,  the  foundations  of  the  j)resent  super- 
structure of  dentistry.  In  treating  of  this  subject,  however,  numerous 
difficulties  have  presented  themselves,  not  the  least  of  which  is  the 
(almost)  impossibility  of  obtaining  any  reliable  information  about  the 
earliest  of  American  dentists.  As  to  these,  the  details  to  be  had  are, 
at  best,  very  meagre,  and  the  accounts  of  them  extremely  conflicting. 
Another  objection  to  be  overcome  is  the  possible  charge  of  in^'idious 
selection  of  individuals  for  notice.  In  this  regard  we  may  say,  that 
certain  names  have  always  stood  so  high  on  the  dental  roll  of  honor 
and  priority  that  little  risk  can  be  incurred  by  accepting  them  at 
once  as  proper  subjects  for  such  a  chapter  as  this;  and  Ave  cannot, 
.we  think,  be  justly  censured  for  limiting  our  biographical  depart- 
ment strictly  to  those  names ;  which  will,  accordingly,  be  done. 

Prior  to  the  war  of  1775-83  there  was,  iis  far  as  can  now  be  ascer- 
tained, only  one  dentist,  practicing  specially  as  such,  in  this  country, 
and  he  remained  here  only  a  short  time.  This  gentleman  was  Mr. 
Robert  Woofendale,  whose  temjjorary  sojourn  here  has  been  already 
noticed  in  the  Introduction  as  fully  as  is  now  possible. 

In  the  year  1776,  and  for  five  years  thereafter,  we  have  no  authentic 
account  of  any  dentist  in  this  country;  so  that  the  date  1876,  although 
representing  the  one  hundredth  year  of  existence  of  the  nation,  cannot 
be  said  to  be,  strictly,  the  centennial  of  American  dentistry. 

Most  accounts  have  given,  as  the  first  dentists  in  America  after 
1776,  Mr.  Joseph  Lemaire  and  one  Whitclock,  or  Whitlock;  but  it 
appears  from  Watson's  "Annals  of  Phihide]])hia"  (vol.  i.  p.  179) 
that,  on  Mr.  Lemaire's  first  appearance  in  that  city,  in  1784,  he  found 
there  a  dentist  (whether  native  or  foreign  is  not  stated)  by  the  name 
of  Baker,  "the  first  person  ever  known  as  a  dentist  in  Philadelphia." 
This  is  also  all  that  is  known  to-day  of  this  person.  When  he  first 
practiced  in  Philadelphia  cannot  be  Jiscertained. 

7 


8  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAN   DENTISTRY. 

Joseph  Lcmaire  was  a  French  dentist,  who  came  to  this  countr)^  Avith 
the  French  army.  Dr.  Hayden*  mentions  him  as  follows:  "The 
Iniy^t  hints  that  were  afforded  or  o]ip<)rtnnities  offered  to  any  })er.s()n 
to  obtain  a  knowledge  of  the  profession  were,  we  believe,  tjirough  a 
French  dentist,  by  the  name  of  Le  Mai  re,  who  offered  his  services  to 
the  pnblic  durinjj^  the  Revolutionary  war.  ,  .  .  He  Avas  not  without 
some  ])retensions  to  skill  in  practical  operations,  especially  in  trans- 
j)lanting;  teeth.  .  .  .  He  likewise  undertook  to  instruct  some  two  or 
three  persons  in  the  jirofession,  which  may  be  considered  as  the  origin 
or  commencement  of  dentistry  in  this  countr}'."  Dr.  James  Gardette 
also  mentions  Lemaire  (called  by  him  Lemayeur)  as  one  who  had  the 
"  reputation  of  an  eminent  dentist"  in  Philadelphia  when  he  arrived 
in  that  city,  in  June,  1784.t 

Dr.  Hayden  speaks  (former  citation)  of  Whitelock  as  a  dentist, 
"a  gentleman  of  polite  address  and  accomplished  manners,"  who, 
about  the  same  time  as  Lemaire,  or  shortly  after,  entered  this  country 
as  one  of  a  company  of  theatrical  performers  who  were  induced  to 
come  here  through  "  a  rage  for  theatrical  performances,"  Avhich,  it 
seems  from  this,  was  then  ])revalent  with  our  ancestiy. 

From  a  notice  in  Harris's  "■  Dental  Dictionary,"^;  it  appears  that 
Isaac  Greenwood,  the  father  of  that  John  Greenwood  celebrated  as 
having  constructed  artificial  dentures  for  George  Washington,  was 
the  fii'st  deutLst  in  Boston.  From  this  notice,  no  dates  being  given  in 
it,  vvc  are  forced  to  conclude  that  the  dental  practice  of  the  father  was 
anterior  to  that  of  the  son,  who  began,  as  nearly  as  can  be  ascertained, 
about  1784—5.  Another  vague  notice  in  the  same  work  (p.  334)  gives 
us  to  understand  that  Clark  Greemcood ,  a  younger  brother  of  John, 
was  in  practice  in  New  York  at  and  before  that  date. 

AVe  have  now  named  all  the  dental  practitioners  of  the  earliest 
dates,  information  of  which  is  so  scanty  and  unreliable  as  to  warrant 
only  the  conclusion  that  they  were,  if  not  the  first,  at  least  among  the 
fii'st  of  the  profession  in  this  countiy.  The  primary  ap])earance  of 
any  of  them  it  is  impossible  now  to  ascertain.  It  is  i)rol)able  tliat 
some,  if  not  all,  of  them  may  antedate  those  of  whom  we  have  reli- 
able facts  and  data  to  offer;  therefore  they  have  been  placed  first  in 
our  n(»tation.  The  next  to  be  mentioned  are  those  of  whom  exactness 
in  <late  and  correctness  of  knowledge  can  be  asserted. 


*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  1st  Series,  vol.  ii.  p.  20. 

+  Ibid.,  vol.  X.  p.  65 

X  Edition  of  1849,  p.  333. 


THE    FOUXDERS   OF   AMERICAN   DENTISTRY.  k) 

The  first  of  these,  in  the  order  of  time,  M'as  Josiah  Fku/g,  -who^  as 
far  as  can  now  be  accurately  determined,  was  also  the  first  dentist 
native  to  this  country.  He  held  a  major's  commission  in  the  Ameri- 
can army,  and  commenced  practice  as  an  itinerant  immediately  after 
the  close  of  the  war,  in  1782.  He  had  obtained  his  knowledge  of 
dentistry  from  that  Lemaire  already  mentioned,  who  was  then  in  the 
army  of  Count  Rochambeau,  and  who  taught  young  Flagg  (he  was 
only  eighteen  years  of  age)  while  the  French  and  Americans  were  in 
winter  quarters,  side  by  side,  near  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  1781- 
82.  Later  he  settled  in  Boston.  During  the  war  of  1812  he  was 
taken  as  a  prisoner  to  England,  where,  while  on  parole,  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Sir  Astley  Cooper,  and  assisted  him  in  operations  at 
Guy's  Hospital. 

The  following  extract  from  a  circular  which  Flagg  was  wont  to 
distribute  in  the  various  towns  in  which  he  stopped  during  his  itin- 
erant practice  will  be  interesting.  It  is  without  date,  but  was  probably 
printed  somewhere  from  1785  to  1790. 

"  Dr.  Flagg  transplants  teeth ;  cures  ulcers  and  eases  them  from 
pain  without  drawing ;  fastens  those  that  are  loose ;  mends  teeth  with 
foil  or  gold  to  be  as  lasting  and  useful  as  the  sound  teeth,  and  icitliout 
pain  in  the  operation;  makes  artificial  teeth,  and  secures  them  in  an 
independent,  lading,  and  serviceable  manner.  Sews  up  harelips,  and 
fixes  gold  roofs  and  palates,  greatly  assisting  the  pronunciation  and 
the  swallow.  .  .  .  Cuts  the  defect  from  teeth  and  restores  them  to 
whiteness  and  soundness,  without  saws,  files,  acids,  and  such  abusives 
as  have  shamefully  crept  into  the  profession,  and  which  have  de- 
stroyed the  confidence  of  the  publick.  Sells,  by  wholesale  and  retail, 
dentifrices,  tinctures,  chewsticks,  masticks,  teeth-  and  gum-brushes, 
suitable  for  every  age,  complaint,  and  climate,  with  directions  for  their 
use." 

If  the  date  we  have  given  as  probably  correct  for  this  circular  be 
really  so,  then  the  recorded  use  of  gold  for  filling  in  this  country  is 
earlier  than  has  been  heretofore  known..  There  is  another  (and  dated 
1796)  circular  of  Dr.  Josiah  Flagg's  in  existence,  fuller  and  more 
complete  than  that  just  quoted.  It  will  be  noticed  further  on  in 
connection  with  other  divisions  of  this  work.  Dr.  Flagg  died  in 
Boston  in  1816. 

James  Gardette  was  born  in  France,  1756.  He  studied  medicine 
for  two  years  in  Paris  (1773-1775),  and  was  also,  immediately  after- 
ward, nearly  the  same  length  of  time  in  hospital  practice  at  Toulon, 
when  he  was  commissioned  a  surgeon  in  the  French  navy.     He 


10  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

arrived  at  IMyiiicmth,  Mass.,  in  Januarv,  1778.  He  subsequently  rc- 
sijjned  liis  commission,  and  adopted  this  country  as  his  home.  When 
the  French  fleet  and  army,  under  Count  Roeliambeau,  arrived  at 
Newport  (1781)  he  visited  that  town  and  found  occasion  for  some 
dental  practice  among  the  officers.  In  the  autumn  of  1783  he 
went  to  Xew  York,  wlicre  his  professional  success  appears  to  have 
been  slight.  In  1784  he  removed  to  Philadelphia,  where  he  con- 
tinued in  a  vcr\'  successful  dental  practice  until  1829,  a  period  of 
forty-five  years. 

Mr.  Gardette's  name  w411  always  be  prominent  among  those  of  the 
best  American  dentists.  "As  an  operator  Mr.  Gardette  displayed 
great  judgment,  care,  and  dexterity."*  He  was  the  first  to  substitute 
flat  clasps  for  ligatures  or  wires  in  artificial  work.  He  invented  the 
"mortise  plate"  "to  which  the  teeth  are  secured  by  means  of  gold 
pins,  and  which  permits  the  tooth  to  rest  upon  the  gum  instead  of 
the  gold  j)late."t  The  first  application  of  the  principle  of  suction 
or  atmospheric  pressure  has  been  attributed  to  him.  It  is  probable 
that  the  idea  was  first  advanced  by  him ;  but  the  principle  was  sub- 
sequently improved  upon  by  the  employment  of  the  cavity  plate 
many  years  after.  "  He  wtLS  the  early  advocate,  if  not  the  first  who 
recognized  the  wisdom  of  affording  space  for  the  healthy  and  good 
arrangement  of  the  teeth  by  judicious  extractions  in  youth."|  He 
was  also  one  of  the  first  dentists  who  substituted  gold  foil  for  lead  in 
filling  teeth,  and  "related  that  he  had  at  one  period  i)repared  gold 
foil  for  his  own  use  from  Dutch  ducats,§  when  no  sufficiently  skilled 
gold-beater  could  be  had.  He  published,  so  fiir  as  is  known,  only 
one  article.  This,  "On  the  Transplantation  of  the  Human  Teeth," 
may  be  found  republished  from  the  Philadelphia  Medical  Recoi'dei' 
in  the  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  1st  Series,  vol.  x.  p.  64. 
In  1829  he  returned  to  France,  and  died  at  Bordeaux,  August,  1831. 

John  Greenwood  enlisted  at  the  early  age  of  fifteen  in  the  American 
army,  and  was  in  the  battles  of  Bunker's  Hill  and  Trenton,  and  also 
in  an  exjiedition  to  Canada  under  Arnold.  He  afterward  entered 
the  naval  privateer  service,  in  which  he  remained  until  the  close  of 
the  war;  when,  finding  himself  without  employment,  he  applied  to 
his  "  youngest  brother,  Clark  Greenwood,  who  was  in  New  York 
practicing  dentistry,"||  but  received  no  encouragement  from  hiin. 
He  then  embarked   in  the  business  of  nautical   and   mathematical 

*  Harris's  Dental  Dictionary,  p.  316.  f  I^ifl-  J  Ibid. 

§  Ibid.  II  Ibid.,  p.  334. 


THE    FOUNDERS    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY.  11 

instrument  making.  "Soon  after  having  engaged  in  this  new  busi- 
ness, Dr.  Garaage  requested  Mr.  Greenwood  to  extract  a  tooth  for 
one  of  his  patients,  wliich  he  accomplished  very  successfully..  This 
was  the  commencement  of  his  practice  as  a  dentist.  He  was,  how- 
ever, for  some  time  after  this  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  nautical 
and  mathematical  instruments  and  ivory  turning,  and  practiced  dent- 
istry as  opportunity  oiFered.  The  demand  for  his  services,  however, 
in  the  last-mentioned  capacity,  soon  increased  to  such  an  extent  that 
he  was  compelled  to  abandon  his  other  occupations  and  to  procure 
the  assistance,  first,  of  William  Pitt,  and  afterwards  of  Clark  Green- 
wood, his  brothers,  to  enable  him  to  meet  his  numerous  professional 

engagements Mr.  Gi'cenwood  was  ....  well  informed  in 

the  surgical  department  of  his  profession During  his  practice 

in  the  treatment  of  a  diseased  maxillary  sinus,  he  perforated  this 
cavity  from  the  socket  of  an  upper  molar  tooth,  and  eifected  a  cure. 
....  It  has  been  said  that  he  was  the  first  to  strike  up  a  gold  plate 
to  serve  as  a  base  for  artificial  teeth  in  the  United  States,  .... 
without  a  knowledge  of  its  ever  having  been  done  before  that  time, 
1799."*  He  also  constructed  sets  of  artificial  teeth  with  stained 
gums  in  hippopotamus. 

But  Mr.  Greenwood  is  best  known  to  the  profession  of  to-day 
through  the  fact  of  his  having  been  the  dentist  of  the  first  President, 
George  Washington.  He  constructed  several  sets  of  teeth  for  that 
eminent  man,  one,  at  least,  of  which  is  now  in  existence,  in  the  pos- 
session of  Dr.  John  Allen,  of  New  York ;  and  wore  as  a  watch- 
charm  the  general's  last  natural  tooth.  Below  is  a  letter  written  him 
by  General  Washington: 

"Mount  Vernon,  January  Gth,  1795. 

"Sir — Your  letter  of  the  2Sth  ult.,  loith  the  parcel  that  accompanied 
it,  came  safe  to  hand.  I  feci  obliged  to  you  for  your  attention  to  my 
request  and  for  the  directions  you  have  given  me. 

"Enclosed  you  will  find  bank  notes  for  fifteen  dollars,  which  I  shall  be 
glad  to  hear  have  got  safe  to  your  hands.  If  you  should  return  to 
Connecticut,  I  should  be  glad  to  be  advised  of  it,  and  to  what  place,  as 
I  shall  always  prefer  your  services  to  those  of  any  other  in  the  line  of 
your  present  profession. 

"I  am,  sir, 

"  Your  very  humble  servant, 

"G.  Washington." 

*  Harris's  Dental  Dictionary,  p.  334. 


12  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAN   DENTISTRY. 

Horace  JI.  JIar/den  was  born  the  ]3tli  October,  17G8,  and  at  tlie 
age  of  fourteen  Avent  to  sea  lus  a  eabin-boy,  vovao-iiii:;  to  the  AVest 
Indies,  Two  years  hiter,  being  thrown  upon  liis  own  resources  by 
tlie  ])overty  of  liis  parents,  he  became  apprentice  to  an  architect, 
which  business  he  followed  until  his  twenty-fourth  year;  when,  be- 
ing in  Xew  York,  and  having  occasion  for  the  professional  aid  of  a 
dentist,  he  visited  ]\Ir.  Greenwood.  While  under  treatment,  he  deter- 
mined to  become  a  dentist;  and,  "procuring  the  few  dental  boolcs 
M'hich  were  then  accessible,  and  not  apprehending  any  deficiency  in 
mechanical  skill,  he  directed  his  course  southward  in  quest  of  a  loca- 
tion,"* and  arrived  in  Baltimore  in  1804,  where  he  determined  to 
remain. 

Dr.  Hayden's  previous  education  was  hardly  calculated  to  further 
his  professional  projects;  but,  being  a  man  of  considerable  energy 
and  native  ability,  he,  by  dint  of  hard  study,  soon  mastered  his  text- 
books, and  thereupon  began  to  gain  some  local  reputation.  He  after- 
ward conceived  the  idea  that  the  dental  profession  was  capable  of  a 
much  higher  ])ublic  and  scientific  status  than  it  then  held;  which 
elevation,  he  rightly  considered,  could  be  reached  only  through  a 
higher  standard  of  scientific  attainments.  Accordingly,  he  began  the 
study  of  general  medicine,  while  continuing  to  operate  as  a  dentist; 
and  with  such  effect  that,  later  in  his  life,  he  received  honorary 
degrees  from  both  the  University  of  Maryland  and  the  Jefferson 
College  of  Philadelphia.  In  1825  he  was  invited  by  the  former 
institution  to  read  a  course  of  lectures  on  denti:?trv  before  its  medical 
class.  He  also  devoted  much  attention  to  the  study  of  geology,  and 
Avrote  a  work  on  that  science. 

For  the  furtherance  of  his  ideas  on  dental  education  and  standing, 
he  joined  (1839)  with  those  gentlemen  who  petitioned  the  Legislature 
of  Maryland  to  establish  a  dental  college;  "the  fiiculty  to  consist 
partly  of  dental  and  partly  of  medical  practitioners;"  and,  that 
institution  having  been  finally  established  in  Baltimore,  he,  at  the 
advanced  age  of  seventy,  assumed  the  duties  of  its  chair  of  dental 
physiology  and  pathology. 

Dr.  Hayden  was  also  one  of  the  founders  of  the  American  Society 
of  Dental  Surgeons,  and  was  elected  (1840)  its  first  jn-esident;  which 
office  he  continued  uninterruptedly  to  hold  until  the  time  of  his 
decease,  January  2Gth,  1844. 

Besides  his  ^vork  on  geology,  already  noticed.  Dr.  Hayden  wrote 


*  Harris's  Dental  Dictionary,  p.  359. 


THE    FOUNDERS    OF   AMERICAN    DENTISTRY.  13 

many  papers  on  dcntistr)'-  and  medicine,  wliicli  were  published  in  the 
medical  periodicals  of  the  time.  He  was  a  man  of  unusual  energy 
and  strcn2:th  of  character.  The  eminence  to  which  he  attained,  in 
the  medical  as  well  as  the  dental  profession,  proves  this ;  for  such 
eminence  was  entirely  the  result  of  his  own  untiring  and  almost  un- 
aided eiforts,  without  any  regular  education  in  these  directions. 

Edward  Hudson  was  born  in  Ireland  in  the  year  1772.  Harris 
remarks  that  "  His  parents,  it  is  believed,  were  members  of  the  re- 
ligious Society  of  Friends,  and  although  left  an  orphan  at  an  early 
age,  the  principles  implanted  in  his  mind  by  his  connection  with  this 
proverbially  honest  and  upright  sect  appeared  to  germinate,  and  in 
maturer  years  to  produce  appropriate  fruit."* 

Upon  the  death  of  Hudson's  parents,  a  cousin,  who  was  established 
in  Dublin  as  one  of  the  most  prominent  dentists  of  that  city,  adopted 
young  Edward  as  his  son,  and  soon  after  entered  him  as  a  student  at 
Trinity  College,  M'here  he  prosecuted  his  studies  with  such  ardor  and 
success  as  delighted  his  benefactor,  who  was  a  man  of  great  attain- 
ments. Hudson  pursued  the  practice  of  dental  surgery  in  the  office 
of  his  relative,  and  "rose  rapidly  in  qualification  for  his  chosen 
profession,  in  which  his  future  eminence  was  then  confidently  pre- 
dicted." 

While  at  college  Hudson  was  a  member  of  several  of  the  debating 
and  other  societies  established  about  that  time  (1795),  and  soon  be- 
came prominent  in  these  connections.  Here  he  knew  and  was  inti- 
mate with  many  of  the  most  distinguished  men  of  the  day  and 
country, — among  them  the  Emmets,  the  Sheares,  the  Corbetts,  and 
Moore,  the  poet.  AVith  the  latter  he  Avas  especially  familiar,  and  the 
friendship  then  formed  between  them  ceased  only  with  life. 

The  societies  of  which  he  was  a  member  at  length  became  so  open 
and  liberal  in  their  treatment  of  those  political  and  social  questions 
which  were  then  agitating  all  Ireland  and  threatened  disastrous  con- 
sequences, that  the  lord  chancellor,  Clare,  dissolved  them,  and  ordered 
the  banishment  of  such  of  their  members  as  were  most  obnoxious, 
from  their  pronounced  views,  to  the  government.  Hudson  at  this 
time  escaped  the  hand  of  authority ;  but  immediately  compromised 
himself  still  further  by  joining  the  Society  of  United  Irishmen, — an 
association  so  distasteful  and  dangerous  to  the  home  government  that 
the  greatest  vigor  and  relentless  severity  were  manifested  by  it  in 
the  pursuit  and  punishment  of  the  members.     With  many  others, 

*  Harris's  Dental  Dictionary,  p.  309. 


14  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

Hudson  was  seized,  and  imprisoned  in  Fort  George,  Scotland;  where 
he  remained  until  the  peace  of  Amiens,  in  1802.  After  being  re- 
leased he  came  to  America. 

He  hc<2:an  the  practice  of  dentistry  in  Philadelphia  in  1805.  At 
that  date  ^Ij-.  James  Gardette  was  the  only  dentist  of  repute  in  that 
citv,  and  had  attained  a  very  high  reputation.  Hudson's  professional 
progress  was,  at  first,  slow;  part  of  his  thoughts  and  time  being  en- 
grossed with  some  business  enterprises  in  which  he  had  engaged. 
But  these  ended  disastrously,  leaving  a  burden  of  debt;  from  which, 
on  a  percentage  being  i)aid  them,  the  creditors  gave  a  full  release  of 
the  remaining  amount.  It  is  characteristic  of  Hudson  that  he,  in 
spite  of  this  release,  eventually  i)aid,  from  the  income  of  his  profes- 
sional practice,  all  that  part  of  the  original  indebtedness,  with  in- 
terest, for  which  he  had  received  the  release. 

Once  freed  from  the  shackles  of  commercial  pursuits,  Hudson 
soon  attained  great  eminence  in  his  profession.  The  peculiar  kind- 
ness, honesty,  and  uprightness  of  his  nature  gained  him  hosts  of 
social  friends;  and  liLs  skill  as  a  practitioner  drew  to  him  so  many 
and  such  patients  that  he  acquired  a  competence.  Harris  (former 
citation)  says  that  "  by  his  patients  he  was  idolized  as  few  of  his 
professional  brethren  can  ever  expect  to  be." 

Hudson's  standard  of  excellence  in  dentistry  was  not  only  high, 
but  lor  the  time  somewhat  novel.  Family  (E.)  says  of  him,  *' We 
are  probably  more  indebted  to  his  success  than  to  that  of  any  other 
man  for  the  importance  which  was  attached  at  that  period  to  opera- 
tions which  were  intended  to  preserve  the  natural  teeth  in  their  natural 
state."  For,  "  by  the  complete  success  attending  the  practice  of  this 
great  man,  the  public  were  soon  convinced  that  teeth  could  be  saved" 
— instciid  of  being  extracted.  "The  surgical  department,  embracing 
all  required  operations  on  the  living  teeth,  ....  was  as  well  under- 
stood, and  as  perfectly  and  thoroughly  practiced  by  Hudson  ....  as 
by  any  operators  who  ever  lived,  either  before  or  since  that  period."* 

John  Ilmuhdl  was  born  in  1773,  and  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
the  class  of  1802,  a  class  celebrated  for  the  since-displayed  eminent 
talent  of  nvuiy  of  its  members.  He  studied  medicine  with  Dr.  John 
Jeffries,  of  JJnston,  and  commenced  medical  and  dental  practice  in 
that  city  in  ISOo. 

The  circuinst  uic's  under  which  he  was  led  to  turn  his  attention  to 
dentistry  are  interesting  as  showing  the  character  of  the  general  dental 

*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Sciciico,  1st  Series,  vol.  iii.  p.  8. 


THE    FOUNDERS    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY.  15 

practice  of  the  time.  Finding,  while  at  college,  his  teeth  decaying, 
Randall  applied  to  the  most  prominent  dentist  of  whom  he  knew; 
and  was  frankly  told  by  that  practitioner  that  "  his  business  was  to 
put  in  neic  teeth,"  and  that  he  declined  operating  to  preserve  the 
natural  ones.  This,  in  the  light  of  his  general  education,  appeared 
to  Randall  to  be  a  very  limited  view  of  dental  surgery ;  and  he  at 
once  procured  such  dental  works  as  he  could,  and  studied  them  under 
the  impression  that  disease  might  and  should  be  remedied  without 
the  removal  of  the  diseased  member.  His  first  efforts  in  dentistry 
were  while  he  was  in  college,  and  performed  on  himself.  His  fellow- 
students  also  were  benefited  by  his  operations. 

Dr.  Randall  gave,  for  many  years,  only  a  portion  of  his  attention 
to  dentistry,  for  he  considered  medicine  his  calling.  He  never  adver- 
tised either  branch  of  his  profession, — although  such  a  method  of 
obtaining  publicity  was  resorted  to  by  the  most  eminent  of  his  con- 
temporaries, without  any  thought  of  its  being  unprofessional.  "Pie 
was  decidedly  conservative  in  his  theory  and  practice  of  dental  sur- 
gery. .  .  .  He  was  eminently  popular  and  successful  in  extracting 
teeth.  He  used  the  key  ^vith  great  skill,  and  the  forceps  long  before 
they  were  known  as  an  article  of  merchandise.  .  .  .  His  success  in 
engrafting  (pivoting)  teeth  was  very  great."*  He  died  in  1843, 
having  long  been  a  useful  and  honorable  member  of  society. 

Leonard  Koecker  was  born  in  Bremen,  Hanover,  in  1785,  and 
early  in  life  engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits.  At  this  time  he  became 
acquainted  with  a  traveling  Jew  dentist,  who  took  much  notice  of 
him,  allowing  the  lad  to  handle  his  instruments,  and  even  present- 
ing him  with  a  small  set,  which  Koecker  preserved.  He  came  to 
this  country  as  a  commercial  agent,  but  failed;  and,  about  1807,  be- 
gan the  practice  of  dentistry  in  Philadelphia,  without  any  knowledge 
of  the  profession.  But  his  native  ability  and  energy  remedied  any 
defecis  in  that  direction.  He  practiced  in  Philadcl])hia  until  1822, 
his  reputation  rapidly  increasing.  Indeed,  at  that  date,  his  profes- 
sional income  was  eight  thousand  dollars  per  annum,  then  a  much 
more  important  sum  than  now.f  His  health,  however,  compelled  a 
voyage  to  Europe ;  and  he  eventually  settled  in  London,  as  a  dentist, 
and  remained  there  until  his  death  in  1850,  in  very  extensive  and 
widely-known  professional  practice. 

As  has  been  seen,  Koecker  had,  in  the  beginning,  absolutely  no 


*  Harris's  Dental  Dictionary,  p.  638. 

f  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  2J  Series,  vol.  i.  p.  473. 


16  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

dental  knowlodiro.  His  first  case  in  Pliiladclphia,  one  of  simple  ex- 
traction, occasioned  him  much  mental  embarrassment.  But,  to  use 
the  words  of  Parmly,  *'  He  (grasped  the  tooth  with  an  instrument, 
shut  his  eves,  and  turning  his  head  from  the  patient,  made  a  strong 
effort  which  dislodged  the  tooth,"  —  he.  being,  meanwhile,  "under 
such  excitement  that  he  knew  not  whether  the  tooth  was  out  or  the 
jaw  broken."*  The  patient,  however,  ajjpears  to  have  been  quite 
satisfied ;  for  Parmly  adds  that  he  assured  the  trembling  operator  he 
"  had  never  before  had  a  tooth  extracted  so  easily,"  and  that  "  from 
that  gentleman's  influence  his  (Koecker's)  success  commenced." 

From  being  at  first  in  great  need  of  a  teacher  for  himself,  Koecker 
finally  came  to  be  a  teacher  of  others.  His  Avork  on  Dental  Surgery, 
published  in  London  in  1826,  is  one  of  very  considerable  merit,  and 
even  now  a  standard  of  reference.  Some  of  his  methods  of  operating, 
particularly  in  the  treatment  of  the  dental  pulp,  have  been  almost  uni- 
versally adopted  by  the  highest  authorities.  His  subsequent  profes- 
sional attainments,  when  considered  side  by  side  with  his  "  first  case" 
in  the  house  in  Sansom  Street,  Philadelphia,  will  certainly  warrant 
us  in  applauding  the  care,  energy,  and  conscientiousness  displayed  in 
his  whole  career,  and  the  bestowing  on  him  much  honor  and  respect. 

AVe  have  now  noticed,  briefly,  such  dental  practitioners  as  seem 
indisputably  entitled  to  treatment  under  the  present  head.  Many 
more  gentlemen,  of  later  date  but  not  less  strong  claims  to  notice, 
might  be  here  included ;  but  we  prefer  to  allow  their  acts  to  speak 
for  them,  as  embodied  in  the  pages  to  come,  rather  than  to  mention 
them  specially.  In  thus  deciding,  no  negligence  of  their  claims,  or 
depreciation  of  their  abilities,  is  intended  or  can  be  charged. 

*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  2d  Series,  vol.  i.  p.  470. 


MECHANICAL  DENTISTRY. 


ARTIFICIAL  TEETH. 

ARTIFICIAL   TEETH    OTHER    THAN    PORCELAIN. 

Before  the  use  of  porcelain  teeth  became  general  in  dentistry, 
various  materials  and  methods  were  in  vogue  as  substitutes  for  lost 
or  decayed  teeth.  The  following  are  the  principal  materials  used, 
named  in  the  order  of  estimation  in  which  they  were  held  : 

Human  teeth. 

Animal  teeth  (those  of  cattle  and  sheep). 

Hippopotamus  tusks  and  teeth. 

Elephant,  and  other  ivories. 

Bone. 

The  methods  of  use  of  these  will  be  described  in  the  order  given. 

Human  Teeth. — In  earlier  years,  a  very  common  method  of  using 
these  teeth  was  by  transplantation  ;  but,  belonging,  as  it  does,  more  to 
operative  than  to  mechanical  dentistry,  this  mode  will  receive  notice 
under  the  former  head. 

The  part  of  the  human  tooth  used  by  dentists,  except  in  trans- 
plantation, was  that  portion  which  is  covered  with  enamel.  A  lost 
tooth  was  replaced  by  one  of  its  own  class,  as  incisors  by  incisors,  and 
molars  by  molars.  In  the  better  class  of  operations,  attention  was 
paid  to  matching  the  natural  and  introduced  teeth  in  such  particulars 
as  shape,  size,  color,  and  (piality.* 

The  methods  of  introduction  were  four,  viz.,  pivoting,  by  ligatures, 
with  springs,  and  on  bases.  The  first,  where  a  healthy  and  proper 
root  rendered  it  practicable,  was  deemed  by  far  the  best  method. 
Robert  Woofendale,  in  1783,  says,  in  regard  to  this  operation,  "An- 
other method  of  supplying  the  loss  of  teeth  by  art  is,  by  fixing  the 
crown  or  enameled  part  of  a  sound  human  tooth  to  the  root  of  a  tooth 


*  Fitch's  Dentiil  Surgery,  1829. 

3  17 


•18  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAN   DENTISTRY. 

of  which  the  enameled  part  is  wliolly,  or  in  part,  decayecl  or  broken. 
This  in  dt)ne  1)V  filing  each  properly,  and  uniting  them  by  the  assistance 
of  a  screw  of  gold  or  silver ;  and  ANhich  may  be  done  so  completely, 
that  it  is  sometimes  not  without  difficulty  they  can  be  separated,  in 
some  instances  for  several  years,  provided  the  orifice  in  the  root  of 
the  t<J0th,  through  Mhich  the  nerve  passes,  is  not  much  decayed. 
This  operation  can  only  be  performed  where  the  teeth  have  but  one 
root ;  neither  can  it  be  practiced  when  the  root  of  a  tooth  is  out."  * 

Benjamin  James  (1814)  says,  "Dentists  pui-sue  very  different 
methods  of  fastening  the  new  crown  upon  the  roots ;  some  drive  the 
wire,  which  is  attached  to  the  crown,  into  the  cilnal  of  the  root,  with 
cotton  wrapped  around  it  to  make  it  tight ;  M'hile  others  previously 
place  a  piece  of  wood  in  the  root,  and  attach  the  crown  to  this  sub- 
stance. As  the  cotton,  of  the  former  method,  absorbs  and  retains 
the  saliva,  which,  from  stagnation,  becomes  offensive ;  and  as  teeth, 
set  in  this  way,  are  sooner  loosened,  we  are  induced  to  prefer  the 
latter  manner  of  setting  them."  f  The  mode  preferred  by  Mr.  James 
was  simply,  screwing  part  of  a  gold  or  wood  pivot  into  the  crown,  and 
driving  the  other  part  (previously  squared  on  its  sides)  into  the  wood 
socket  already  perforated  for  its  reception  and  placed  in  the  root. 

Hnman  teeth  were  also  fastened  in  the  mouth  by  tying  them  by 
ligatures  of  gold  or  silver  wire,  silk,  unbleached  thread,  sea  grass 
(Indian  weed),  or  silkworm  gut.  This  is  the  oldest  known  method 
of  fixing  artificial  teeth  in  their  places.  This  mode,  however,  was 
open  to  so  many  objections  that  it  was  rarely  used  by  the  more  skill- 
ful operators,  and  then  only  where  no  other  mode  was  possible;  and 
it  gradually  fell  into  almost  entire  disuse  on  the  appearance  of  gold 
or  other  ])lates  fitted  with  clasps. 

Human  teeth  were  scarce,  and  very  costly.  In  an  advertisement 
inserted  in  a  Philadelphia  paper  in  1784,  M.  Le  Mayeur,  a  dentist, 
offers  (wo  r/uincas  each  for  sound  teeth  to  be  obtained  from  "  persons 
disjwsed  to  sell  their  front  teeth,  or  any  of  them.";};  This  may,  at 
present,  appear  almost  barbarous;  but  it  is  nevertheless  certain  that 
poor  persons  often  disposed  of  their  teeth* to  dentists  in  the  same 
manner  in  which  destitute  females  have  since  sold  their  hair,  in 
moments  of  necessity,  to  the  hair  merchant. 

*  Practical  Observations  on  the  Human  Teeth,  by  R.  Woofendale,  London, 
1783. 

t  A  Trpiitise  on  the  Management  of  the  Teeth,  by  Benjamin  James,  M.M.S.S., 
Boston,  1814. 

X  Watson's  Annals  of  Pliiladclphia,  vol.  i.  p.  179. 


MECHANICAL    DENTISTRY.  19 

There  was,  also,  some  prejudice  against  human  tocth  on  tlie  ground 
that  they  were  often  the  vcliicles  for  introducing  diseases  into  the 
system  of  the  M'earer. 

These  objections  rendered  necessary,  in  many  cases,  the  employment 
of  some  material  which  should  be  cheaper,  and  not  open  to  the  other 
objections  against  human  teeth. 

Animal  Tccfh. — These  were  largely  used,  the  teeth  of  cattle  the 
most  so.  They  were  fastened  in  the  mouth  by  the  same  means  as 
human  teeth.  Their  color,  however,  was  generally  much  lighter  than 
that  of  the  natural  teeth ;  and,  although  they  possessed,  on  one  sur- 
face only,  a  firm  and  durable  enamel,  the  other  surfaces  were  there- 
fore exposed  to  the  attacks  of  corrosive  agents  in  the  saliva,  and  were 
easily  destroyed.  Also,  their  pulp-chambers  were  very  large,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  tooth,  and  were  often  cut  into  in  fitting,  or  broken  into 
during  mastication.  Their  peculiar  forms  were  also  a  great  obstacle 
to  correct  fitting  or  adaptation  in  the  mouth.  On  these  accounts  they 
often  gave  place  to — 

Hippopotamus  Ivory. — This  material  was,  perhaps,  more  exten- 
sively used  than  any  other  of  the  dental  substitutes.  In  cases  where 
two  or  more  consecutive  teeth  were  inserted,  it  was  (except  where 
ligatures  were  introduced)  almost  the  only  material  in  use,  either  as 
carved  in  a  block  into  the  semblance  of  the  removed  teeth,  or  as  a 
base  on  which  to  secure  human  or  animal  teeth,  either  in  the  absence 
or  presence  of  roots.  In  the  former  case,  a  correct  fitting  of  the  base 
to  the  remaining  natural  teeth  was  often  the  only  mode  of  attachment ; 
while  in  other  cases,  the  blot^k  of  teeth  or  the  base  was  secured  by 
ligatures  to  the  adjacent  sound  teeth.  But  the  mode  used  wherever 
practicable,  and  considered  as  most  reliable,  was  pivoting.  This,  as 
mentioned  above,  was  done  in  the  introduction  of  a  single  tooth ;  but 
it  was  also  done  in  cases  of  partial  or  even  whole  dentures,  two  or 
more  dowels,  according  to  the  number  and  position  of  available  roots, 
being  fastened  in  the  block. 

The  block,  or  single  carved  tooth,  often  comprised  a  portion  of 
gum  carved  in  the  material  as  a  base,  the  teeth  and  gum  being  in 
one  piece.  ISIuch  nicety  of  adaptation  was  sometimes  evinced  in  this 
process,  and  the  shapes  of  the  various  teeth  \verc  accurately  copied. 
Partial  dentures,  with  gums,  were  carved  from  one  piece  of  hippo- 
potamus ivory,  with  vacancies  or  holes  for  the  admission  of  the 
remaining  natural  teeth,  the  whole  so  artistically  worked  as,  but  for 
the  material,  to  almost  preclude  the  possibility  of  detection  when  in 
use. 


20  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAN   DENTISTRY. 

The  carved  gums  were  often  colored  to  represent  the  statural  gum; 
but  it  was  not  po&sible  to  make  this  color  durable.  "Woofcndale  says, 
"  This  deception  looks  very  well  at  first,  but  I  never  stained  any  my- 
self, or  saw  any  stained  by  others,  but  that  the  color  was  discharged 
in  a  short  time."* 

Elephant  Ivory,  and  Bone,  were  used  for  the  cheaper  grades  of 
operations,  but  the  higiier  classes  of  operator,  generally  repudiated 
them.  "Teeth  made  of  ivory  (the  tusk  of  the  elephant),  or  oi bone, 
are  very  imperfect :  they  have  no  enamel,  are  soft,  soon  become  dis- 
colored and  begin  to  decay,  and  unavoidably  render  the  breath  offen- 
sive."t  '*  When  artificial  teeth  are  made  of  common  hone,  or  ivory, 
they  generally  soon  turn  yellow. "J  "  This  material  (ivory)  possesses 
more  objection  than  any  other  animal  matter  used  for  the  purpose ; 
it  is  porous,  readily  absorbs  the  saliva,  and  becomes  decomposed  in  a 
very  short  time,  by  which  it  is  discolored,  and  rendered  highly  offen- 
sive to  the  patient."§  At  the  date  of  this  extract,  however,  ivorj' 
and  bone  were  not  in  use  in  this  country,  although  they  are  still  so, 
to  a  limited  extent,  in  some  parts  of  Europe. 

Serious  and  various  ils  were  the  objections  to  teeth  of  animal  sub- 
stances, they  held  their  j)lace  in  the  profession  long  after  the  introduc- 
tion of  mineral  teeth.  In  fact,  human  teeth  were  used  as  substitutes, 
especially  in  the  regions  remote  from  the  more  populous  centres,  until 
a  comparatively  recent  period.  This  was  owing,  perhaps,  as  much  to 
the  conservatism  of  the  profession  (a  conservatism  very  marked  up 
to  1845)  as  to  the  inferior  quality  of  the  primary  productions  in 
mineral  teeth.  The  lack  of  professional  communion,  and  the  strict 
secrecy  very  generally  maintained  in  regard  to  processes  and  materials, 
were  almost  insurmountable  barriers  to  innovation.  But  these  bar- 
riers, once  broken,  vanished  in  the  light  of  a  newer  and  more  liberal 
dispensation ;  and  with  them  vanished  human  substitutes,  with  *'  sea- 
horse," ivory,  and  bone. 

PORCELAIN   TEETH. 

Porcelain,  or  mineral  teeth,  though  used  in  France  as  early  as 
1774,  were  not  introduced  into  this  country  until  1817,  when  Dr. 
A.  \.  Plantou  arrived  in  Philadelphia  from  Paris,  and  engaged  in 
the  practice  of  dentistry.     The  teeth  then  made  in  France,  and 

*  Woofondiilc  on  the  Teeth,  1783. 

t  The  Family  Dentist,  by  Jcsiah  F.  Flagg,  Boston,  1822. 

X  Woofendiile  on  the  Teeth,  1783. 

I  Surgical  and  Mechanical  Dentistry,  by  S.  C.  Harbert,  Philadelphia,  1847. 


MECHANICAL   DENTISTRY.  21 

brought  here  by  Dr.  Plantou,  were  of  such  form,  color,  and  materials 
as  would  now  be  regarded  with  contempt.  The  front  teeth  Avere,  in 
shape,  almost  exactly  like  a  ftplit  bean,  the  labial  surface  being 
rounded  and  enameled,  the  palatal  perfectly  flat.  Lengthwise  across 
this  flat  back  Mas  formed,  before  baking,  a  half-round  groove,  in 
each  side  of  Avhich  were  inserted  small  pieces  of  platinum.  This 
groove  was  for  the  introduction  of  a  gold  wire,  around  which  the 
platina  points  were  hammered,  and  solder  flowed  on  the  metals,  thus 
securing  the  wire  to  the  tooth. 

These  teeth  were  coarselv  made,  and  without  s;ums ;  beino;  designed 
for  adaptation  to  ivory  or  bone  bases.  They  were  white,  opaque,  and 
brittle.  "The  mineral  or  china  teeth  are  very  imperfect;  they  have 
.an  opaque,  earthy  appearance,  are  brittle,  and  the  sensation  they 
produce  when  brought  in  contact  with  the  natural  teeth,  in  masticii- 
tion,  is  very  disagreeable."* 

The  question  of  priority  in  the  manufacture  of  mineral  teeth  in 
this  countiy  is  one  quite  easily  settled.  Claims  are  made  for  Dr.  A. 
A.  Plantou  and  Charles  W.  Peale,  of  Philadelphia,  and  Dr.  Henry 
Villers,  of  Boston.  Mr.  Peale,  however,  in  his  own  autobiography, 
states  that  he  was  induced  to  experiment  in  porcelain  teeth  through 
the  failure  of  a  set  made  for  him  by  Dr.  Plantou.  Hence  we  may 
say  that  the  honor  of  first  manufacturing  mineral  teeth  lies  between 
Drs.  Plantou  and  Villers. 

The  date  of  Dr.  Plantou's  first  attempts  cannot  be  determined 
more  closely  than  by  giving  the  time  as  about  1819  or  1820.  How- 
ever, it  is  certain  that  in  1822  he  exhibited  his  mineral  teeth  before 
the  jMedical  Society  of  Philadelphia,  and  received  for  them  a  certifi- 
cMe  of  approbation.  The  latter  date  being  certainly  correct,  it  is 
very  probable  that  the  first  of  the  former  ones  is  also  to  be  relied  on, 
not  only  as  a  consequent  inference,  but  from  information. 

Dr.  Villers's  claims  to  the  introduction  of  the  manufacture  of  por- 
celain teeth  in  this  country  are  based  principally  on  a  communication 
of  his  to  the  New  York  Dental  Recorder,  published  in  vol.  viii.  p. 
203;  in  which  he  states  that  he  first  experimented  in  England 
(before  1819),  where  he  succeeded  well,  and  returned  to  Boston  in 
1819,  where  he  gave  instructions  and  sold  recipes  to  many  promi- 
nent dentists,  among  others  Drs,  J.  F.  Flagg,  Keep,  Harwood,  and 
Tucker.  An  extract  from  the  letter  cited  will  serve  to  show  the 
nature  of  his  claims: 

*  The  Family  Dentist,  by  Josiah  F.  Flagg,  Boston,  1822. 


22  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

"Dr.  E.  Parnily  vim  boar  witness,  I  believe,  as  to  my  being  the 
first  to  make  teeth  with  a  trans! ueeut  body,  with  parti-colors,  to 
imitate  the  natural  shades.  Coloring  matters  were  the  most  difficult 
to  obtain;  at  that  time  titanium  was  scarcely  known,  and  as  a  sub- 
stitute I  used  antimony  and  iron,  and  occusionally  silver,  but  at  a 
white  heat  this  would  turn  light-broAvn;  to  make  the  dark  shades  I 
worked  in  clinker  from  the  forge.  Dr.  A.  A.  Plantou,  of  Philadel- 
phia, was  a  personal  acquaintance,  and  presented  me  with  a  certificate 
to  the  effect  that  I  was  the  first  to  make  translucent  mineral  teeth. 
M,  Chemant*  was  the  first  to  make  full  sets  of  terra-metallic  teeth, 
which  he  told  me  were  made  of  vcuwres  (fire-brick)  glazed  with 
window-glass,  and  when  liglit  shades  were  wanted  he  added  pipe-clay 
and  white  sand.  Drs.  Maury,  Fonzi,  Fauchard,  and  Delefons,  all 
living  in  London,  expressed  a  favorable  opinion  of  my  teeth,  and 
said  I  might  expect  to  make  a  fortune  by  furnishing  teeth  for  the 
dental  profession.  Dr.  H.  H.  Hayden,  of  Baltimore,  received  in- 
structions from  me." 

A  careful  examination  of  the  aljove  Avill  show  that  no  dates  are 
given  of  the  teachings  and  occurrences  mentioned  by  the  writer, 
although  it  is  evidently  intended  to  be  inferred  that  some,  at  least,  of 
those  occurrences  antedate  Dr.  Plantou.  Further  than  this,  however, 
we  have  the  direct  statement  of  Dr.  Joshua  Tuckerf  that  Dr.  Villers 
never  so  instructed  him  or  Drs,  Keep  and  Harwood,  as  claimed. 
And  it  is  impossible,  in  any  event,  that  Dr.  Villers  could  have  done 
so  before  1830,  for  Dr.  N.  C.  Keep  commenced  his  dental  practice 
between  1825  and  1830,  Dr.  D.  Harwood  began  in  1832,  and  Dr.  J. 
Tucker  commenced  dentistry  in  Boston  in  1833. 

From  these  facts,  as  stated,  we  can  do  no  less  than  refuse  to  accept 
Villers's  claims  to  priority  in  the  manufacture  of  porcelain  teeth  in 
this  country,  for  no  relia])le  data  are  furnished  to  substantiate  them. 
To  Dr.  A.  A.  Plantou,  therefore,  must  be  accorded  the  credit  of 
initiating  here  an  art  which  has  since  attained  to  almost  gigantic 
prr  (portions. 

It  is  almost  equally  exactly  determined  that  Mr.  Charles  W.  Peale 
was  the  next  after  Plantou  to  manufacture  mineral  teeth.  Indeed,  he 
was  near  enough  to  priority  to  have  had  that  place  claimed  for  liim.| 

*  M.  Dubois  d(!  Chcmant,  who  claimed  and  was  granted  patents  for  the  first 
invention  of  mineral  teeth. 

t  Communication  to  the  author. 

I  By  Kembrandt  Peale,  his  son,  at  the  First  Annual  Commencement  of  the 
Philadelphia  Dental  College,  Feb.  28th,  ISoS.—Detiial  News  Letter,  vol.  vi.  p.  189. 


MECHANICAL    DENTISTRY.  23 

ISIr.  Peale  was  a  iini\-ersal  genius.  He  was  successively  a  saddler, 
silversmith,  watchmaker,  dentist,  and  portrait  painter,  in  which  latter 
vocation  he  acquired  his  most  enduring  reputation.  He  was  public 
spirited,  and  given  to  scientific  research.  The  celebrated  museum 
which  bore  his  name  was  founded  in  1785.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  Philadelphia. 

His  first  teeth  (about  1822)  were  made  with  holes  through  them 
for  riveting  to  the  plates,  as  he  had  been  accustomed  to  do  with  teeth 
of  animal  substances.  But  these  proving  inefficient,  he  placed  plat- 
inum wire  in  the  composition  before  firing  it.* 

The  next  principal  experimenter  was  Samuel  W.  Stockton,  who 
commenced  his  experiments  in  1825. 

About  this  time  porcelain  teeth  began  to  command  attention  among 
dentists,  and  many  of  the  profession  made  them  for  employment  in 
their  own  practice.  It  would  be  useless,  and  indeed  impossible,  to 
enumerate  all  who  were  thus  engaged.  Some  arrived  at,  perhaps, 
greater  celebrity  than  others,  and  among  these  we  jnay  name  Joseph 
E.  Mclllhenny,  of  Philadelphia  (1826);  D.  C.  Ambler,  of  New  York, 
and  J.  R.  Spooner,  of  Montreal,  Canada  (1828);  J.  F.  Flagg,  of  Boston 
(1830);  Shearjashub  Spooner,  of  New  York  (1831);  Daniel  Plarwood 
and  Joshua  Tucker,  of  Boston  (1833-4);  James  Alcock,  of  New  York, 
and  John  Allen,  of  Chicinnati  (1835);  and  last  (though  not  least), 
Elias  Wildman,  of  Philadelphia,  who  began  his  experiments  in  1837. 

In  1838,  Dr.  Shearjashub  Spooner  published  in  New  York  his 
work  on  porcelain  teeth,f  in  which  he  gives  the  recipes  of  many  of 
the  then  best  known  manufacturers,  and  several  of  his  pwn. 

It  will  be  of  value  to  here  introduce  some  recipes  showing  the 
gradual  advance  in  the  composition  of  porcelain  teeth  from  the  time 
of  M.  Aiulibran,  in  France  (1820),  to  that  of  Dr.  Spooner  (1838). 

Recipe  of  M.  Audibrax. 

Body. 

Kaolin     .......  6  oz. 

JClay       .......  1  oz.  4  dr. 

Titanium         ......  1  scr.  4  gr. 

Oxide  Gold J  gr. 

Filings  of  Platinum        .        .         .         .  2  gr. 

*  MSS.  of  Dr.  J.  W.  White. 

f  An  Essay  on  the  Art  of  the  Manufacture  of  Min'^ral,  Porcelain,  or  Incor- 
ruptible Teeth,  by  Shearjashub  Spooner,  ]M.D.,  New  York,  1838. 

X  The  clay  used  in  this  recipe  is  the  earth  of  Va)ivres,  so  called  from  the  place 
where  it  is  obtained  near  Paris. 


24  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAN   DENTISTRY. 

Enamel. 

Feldspar ■ .        .  7  oz. 

Kaolin     .         .         .         .         .         .         .  3  dr. 

Titanium  ......  1  scr.  14  gr. 

Oxide  gold       ......  |  gr. 

The  next  recipe  is  described  bv  Dr.  Spooner,*  as  "  tlie  old  body"  of 
Mr.  Stockton,  of  Philadelphia: 

Body. 

Spar 20  parts. 

Silex 20      «' 

Sugar-house  clay     .         .         .         .         .  10      " 

Enatyiel. 

Spar         .......  20  parts. 

Silex 2      " 

Kaolin 1       " 

Dr.  Spooner  remarks  that  "  Mr.  Stockton's  present  recipes  are  very 
different  from  his  old  ones." 

Next  is  one  of  Dr.  Henry  Villers's  recipes,  which  he  spoke  of  as 
producing  "magnificent"  teeth: 

Glass-house  sand 24  parts. 

Pearlash 3      " 

Nitre 2      " 

Korax      .....         I         .  1       " 

Dr.  Spooner  mentions  Dr.  Villersf  as  "  one  of  the  first  to  introduce 
the  art  of  manufacturing  mineral  teeth  into  this  country." 

The  next,  and  last,  is  one  of  Dr.  Spooner's,  wliich,  he  says,  "fuses 
into  a  dense  body  that  stands  the  fire  well,  of  considerable  translucency. 
Very  good  teeth  may  be  made  from  this  body."| 

Spar 20  parts. 

Silex 5      " 

Kaolin 1       " 

Glass  of  borax         .....        1       " 

Samuel  W.  Stockton,  who,  as  previously  stated,  began  his  experi- 
ments in  1825,  was  the  first  in  this  country  whose  manufacture  of 
porcelain  teeth  attained  to  any  commercial  importance.     Most  of  those 

*  Loc.  cit.,  p.  84.  f  Loc.  cit.,  p.  72.  %  I'OC.  cit.,  p.  63. 


MECHANICAL   DENTISTRY.  25 

who  manufactured  previous  to  1835,  did  so  to  supply  their  own  needs, 
but  Stockton  endeavored  to  supply  the  profession.  About  1830  his 
teeth  became  pretty  well  and  widely  knoAvn,  and  soon  thereafter  were 
accepted  and  used  as  the  best  then  procurable.  The  greatest  obstacle 
to  his  absolute  success  lay  in  the  uneven  quality  of  his  fabrication, 
for  he  did  not  work  by  unvarying  formuloe,  and  often  produced  the 
most  perfect  of  his  teeth  by  sheer  accident.  One  "batch,"  in  par- 
ticular, is  still  remembered  by  many  as  far  above  his  average  pro- 
duction. 

Stockton's  manufacture  was,  as  late  as  1845,  the  most  extensive  in 
the  country.  His  greatest  production  per  annum  probably  amounted 
to  five  hundred  thousand  teeth;  which  were,  however  (although  the 
best  then  to  be  obtained),  what  would  now  be  called  cpiite  crude. 
His  bodies  were  opaque,  and  uniform  in  color  throughout  their  whole 
extent;  the  gum  enamel  was  a  smooth  paint,  applied  on  the  surface 
before  final  vitrifaction  of  the  tooth;  the  grinding  surfaces  of  the 
bicuspids  and  molars  were  formed  by  a  three-sided  file,  in  single  or 
crossed  grooves;  each  tooth  was  of  uniform  thickness  from  side  to 
side,  no  attempt  being  made  to  preserve  an  unbroken  lingual  surface 
in  entire  dentures  by  shading  the  thin  incisors  into  the  broad  molars 
through  a  gradual  thickenins;  of  the  intermediate  teeth.  His  stock 
was  kept  in  bulk,  in  bottles;  the  modern  method  of  sorting  and 
•fastening  on  cards  not  having  been  then  introduced.  In  all  these 
particulars,  however,  he  was  not  a  whit  behind  his  contemporaries, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  gained  several  premiums  in  competition  with 
them. 

James  Alcock,  of  New  York,  beginning  in  1835,  persevered  in  his 
endeavors  to  secure  the  strength  and  life-like  appearance  desired, 
until  he  produced  very  excellent  teeth.  His  business  in  them  became 
quite  extensive;  and  remained  so  for  many  years.  D.  C.  Ambler, 
also,  having  commenced  his  experiments  before  Alcock  (1828),  was 
quite  successful  in  establishing  his  manufactures  on  a  firm  basis 
before  the  public. 

Dr.  Elias  Wildman,  of  Philadelphia,  began  his  experiments  in 
1837.  He  produced  such  results  in  life-like  aj^pcarance  as  had  not 
been  obtained  before,  and  remain  unexcelled  to  the  present  time. 
His  principal  success  was  in  the  production  of  uniformity  in  gum 
enamel;  in  this  particular  he  far  outstripped  all  his  rivals.  To  him 
must  be  accorded  the  honor  of  first  reducing  the  manufacture  of 
porcelain  teeth  to  a  scientific  basis. 

In  1844,  Samuel  S.  White,  a  nephew  of  Stockton  (with  whom  he 


26  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

had  servod  a  seven-vears'  apprenticeship  in  "tlie  art  and  mv.stery  of 
dentistry  and  the  manufacture  of  inexjrruptible  teeth"),  began  the 
])ro(hu'tion  of  these  teeth,  in  a  small  way,  in  the  garret  of  a  dwelling- 
house  at  Seventh  and  Race  Streets,  in  Philadeli)hia.  This  was  the 
initiatory  step  in  an  enterprise  which  has  since  become  the  largest  of 
its  kind  in  tlie  world. 

The  improvements  in  mineral  teeth  with  which  Mr,  White  stands 
credited  are  numerous  and  important.  Among  them  may  be  num- 
bered various  changes  in  the  forms  of  ]>latinum  pins;  such  as  the 
bell-shaped  termination,  introduced  in  1850;  the  double-headed  pia, 
in  1863;  and  the  foot-shaped  pin,  in  1872.  Other  not  less  impor- 
tant advances  are:  superior  resistance  to  high  temperatures  in  solder- 
ing; the  maximum  of  strength  as  tested  by  riveting,  as  well  as  by 
practical  use,  with  the  minimum  of  bulk  and  weight;  and  improve- 
ments in  texture,  color,  translucency,  and  vital  appearance  generally; 
together  with  closer  imitation  of  the  physiological  and  anatomical 
ditfercnces  in  the  natural  teeth  than  had  before  been  attained. 

So  well  known  are  his  productions,  however,  that  it  will  be  super- 
fluous to  further  trace  the  advance,  either  of  his  business  or  his  manu- 
factures; suffice  it  to  say  that  he  now  makes,  annually,  over  four 
millions  of  teeth,  about  two-thirds  of  the  whole  number  used  in  the 
world. 

BASE    PLATES. 

Irory  and  Bone. — Previous  to  the  introduction  of  metallic  bases, 
the  use  of  bone  or  ivory  for  this  purpose  was  universal.  The  objec- 
tions to  these  materials  were  numerous  and  important,  bemg  mainly 
identical  with  those  advanced  against  teeth  of  the  same  substances; 
with  the  addition  of  great  difficulty  in  securing  correct  adaptation  to 
the  mouth,  and  the  impossibility  of  making  a  reasonably  correct  fit- 
ting ])ermanent,  on  account  of  the  loss  of  substance  occasioned  by  the 
rapid  decay  of  the  material.  In  spite  of  these  disadvantages,  how- 
ever, bone  and  ivory  combined  the  greatest  number  of  desirable 
points  then  attainable  in  any  one  substance;  and  their  use  was  con- 
tinued (though  gradually  decreasing)  until  several  years  after  the  first 
employment  of  metal  for  the  purpose. 

Ivory  and  bone,  when  used  in  the  insertion  of  single  teeth,  or  par- 
tial dentures  on  one  side,  were  formed  into  what  were  called  sockets; 
which  covered  only  the  gum  from  which  the  natural  teeth  were 
absent.  Wiien  used  in  the  case  of  a  whole  denture,  the  name  base  or 
block  was  given  to  the  W(jrk.     The  manner  of  fitting  was  the  same 


MECHANICAL   DENTISTRY.  27 

in  both  cases,  and  cannot  be  better  described,  in  its  best  form,  than  by 
an  extract  from  Robinson.* 

"The  surface  of  the  model,  having  been  previously  prepared  ^'ith 
wax  and  resin, f  is  now  painted  over  with  rose-pink  and  oil,  and  the 
block  (of  ivory)  being  applied  horizontally,  a  jwrtion  of  the  coloring- 
matter  adheres  to  the  bone  at  the  points  of  ajiposition,  and  thus 
indicates  the  parts  to  be  removed  by  sculpers.  .  .  .  The  process  of 
removal  or  excavation  must  be  continued  ....  until  ....  the 
bone  comes  in  close  contact  with  every  ....  inequality  of  the  sur- 
face. A  similar  adaptation  must  also  be  made  on  a  second  model 
reserved  for  the  purpose,  the  first  having  lost  its  sharpness  from  re- 
peated applications  of  the  bone.  ...  At  this  stage  ....  it  is  neces- 
sary that  the  piece  should  be  fitted  to  the  mouth.  For  this  purpose, 
first  paint  with  rose-pink  and  oil  the  surface  of  the  gum  over  which 
the  piece  is  to  extend ;  .  .  .  .  adapting  the  opposing  teeth  in  the  other 
jaw  to  the  bite,  by  a])})lying  the  coloring-matter  also  to  their  cutting- 
edgas  or  grinding  surfaces;  and  removing  those  marks  on  the  bone 
which  result  .  .  .  ." 

These  bases,  thus  formed,  were  fitted  with  teeth,  either  human, 
animal,  or  porcelain.  It  will  be  evident  that  only  the  greatest  care, 
skill,  and  exj)erience  could  produce  results  in  this  manner  which 
woidd  possess  much  accuracy  of  adaptation,  or  secure  ease  and  com" 
fort  to  the  wearer;  and  when  we  add  to  these  the  objections  already 
enumerated  as  applying  to  ivory  teeth  in  the  mouth,  we  cannot  won- 
der that  the  profession  and  the  public  hailed  with  delight  the  advent 
of  metallic  bases. 

Gold. — The  date  of  introduction  of  metal  bases  into  general  den- 
tistry cannot  be  exactly  determined.  It  is  generally  supposed,  how- 
ever, that  gold  was  the  metal  first  used  as  a  base  for  artificial  teeth. 
It  probably  soon  obtained,  and  has  certainly  ever  since  held,  the  most 
eminent  position  among  the  many  materials  for  that  purpose.  It  is 
probable  that  Dr.  James  Gardette,  of  Philadeli)hia,  Avas  the  first  who 
used  the  gold  base  in  this  country.  Dr.  Gardette  arrived  in  Phila- 
delphia from  New  York  in  1784,  and  was  for  many  years  thereafter 
one  of  the  most  prominent  dental  operators  in  America.  He  used 
gold  as  a  plate,  certainly  in  the  year  1787,|  and  very  probably  for 
some  time  before. 

*  The  Surgical,  Mechanical,  and  Medical  Treatment  of  the  Teeth,  by  James 
Robinson,  London,  1846. 
f  To  harden  the  plaster  and  prevent  penetration  of  the  coloring  matter. 
%  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  1st  Series,  vol.  x.  p.  63. 


28  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

Gold,  being  costly,  Avas  within  reach  of  the  rich  only ;  and 

Silver  was  adopted  for  use  in  cases  where  expense  was  considered. 
Like  gold,  the  date  or  })lace  of  its  first  use  cannot  be  ascertained  with 
precision ;  but  it  is  probable  that  it  was  first  employed  in  England, 
and  soon  after  gold. 

Pldiimim,  as  a  l)ase,  accompanied  the  introduction  of  porcelain  teeth 
in  France.  In  its  pure  state  this  metal  is  too  soft  and  ductile  to  retain 
a  given  form  with  exactitude  inider  pressure ;  and  it  has  hence  been 
generally  alloyal  with  some  other  metal  (silver  and  iridium  have  been 
used),  in  order  to  obtain  the  requisite  stiffness. 

Aluminum  made  its  appearance  as  a  base  about  the  year  1866  ;  and 
to  Dr.  J.  B.  Bean  belongs  the  credit  of  first  casting  a  base  in  this 
metal.*  In  the  state  of  plate  it  was  hammered  or  "  struck  up"  into 
form  as  easily  as  silver ;  but  a  great,  and,  at  first,  an  insurmountable 
obstacle  to  its  use  in  this  manner  lay  in  the  impo&sibility  of  obtaining 
a  solder  or  cement  with  which  to  fiisten  teeth  to  plate  of  this  material. 
Dr.  Bean  was  the  first  to  ccust  it,  in  1866,  and  he  subsequently  patented 
his  process.  He  was  speedily  followed,  in  1867,  by  Dr.  S.  Lawrence, 
of  Lowell,  with  a  simplified  jirocess,  not  patented.  Afterwards  vari- 
ous improvements  in  its  manipulation  were  introduced,  and  there  Avere 
soon  invented  for  it  practicable  solders.  But  the  difficulties  encoun- 
tered in  working  it  were  so  great  as  to  prevent  its  general  introduc- 
tion ;  and  time  disclosed  a  still  greater  defect.  "  While  it  readily 
withstands  the  acid  secretions  of  the  mouth,  it  is  as  readily  destroyed 
in  a  mouth  with  alkaline  reaction."  f  Hence  it  has  fallen  into  disuse. 
"  Aluminum  ....  has  not  proved  as  useful  as  its  advocates,  and 
the  profession  at  large,  once  hoped.     It  is  used  by  but  few."  X 

A'^arious  other  metals  have  been  used,  principally  those  latterly  dis- 
covered, as  iridium,  palladium,  and  rhodium.  Tiiese  are  em])loyed 
generally  as  alloys  of  j)latinum,  and  each  seems  to  serve  a  good  pur- 
pose ;  but  they  are  not  of  sufficiently  general  applicability,  or  easily 
enough  manipulated,  to  have  come  into  any  extended  use. 

Moulded  or  "poured"  tin  bases  were  first  used  by  Dr.  Edward 
Hudson,  of  rhiladelphia,  about  the  year  1820,§  but  appear  not  to 
have  attained  much  importance  at  his  hands.     In  1836,  Dr.  Wm.  A. 


*  Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  viii.  p.  376. 

t  Report  on  Mechanical  Dentistr}-,  American  Dental  Association,  meeting  of 
August,  1874. 

J  Report  on  Mechanical  Dentistry,  American  Dental  Association,  meeting  of 
August,  1875. 

2  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  2d  Series,  vol.  iv.  p.  545. 


MECHANICAL  DENTISTRY.  29 

Royce,  of  Newburgh,  New  York,  cast  bases  in  tin ;  but  became  dis- 
satisfied with  tbeni,  and  substituted  a  gold  or  silver  plate  with  |)oiu-ed 
tin  gums.  To  prevent  corrosion  of  the  tin,  he  attempted  its  galvani- 
zation with  gold,  but  failed ;  the  gold  coating  rapidly  wearing  away."  * 
It  will  be  noticed  that  Dr.  Royce's  last  process  constituted  a  metallic 
continuous  gum. 

In  1850  Dr.  George  E.  Hawes  revived  the  process  ;t  aw^^>  being 
very  materially  aided  by  the  progress  of  liberal  ideas  in  dentistry 
since  the  times  of  Drs.  Hudson  and  Royce,  gave  the  poured  tin  base 
a  much  wider  celebrity  than  it  had  yet  obtained.  At  first  it  was  re- 
ceived with  great  favor ;  but  it  was  not  until  finally  presented  by  Dr. 
Alfred  A.  Blandy,  in  1856,  that  this  method  took  a  strong  hold  on 
the  profession.  Dr.  Blandy  devised  an  alloy  of  tin,  which  proved 
superior  in  ease  of  manipulation,  and  in  durability,  to  the  pure  metal ; 
and,  having  patented  his  alloy  and  processes,  introduced  them  under 
the  title  of  cheoplasUj.  It  received,  from  time  to  time,  very  flattering 
notices  from  men  eminent  in  the  profession.  Dr.  Harris  said  of  it, 
in  1859,  "Thus  far,  we  believe  it  has  realized  the  expectations  of  its 
most  zealous  advocates.  ...  From  results  which  have  come  under 
our  own  observation,  the  use  of  it  seems  likely,  in  a  very  short  time, 
to  become  general."  J  In  sj)ite  of  Dr.  Harris's  prophecy,  however, 
chcoplasty  has  not  come  into  greatly  extended  use.  "  This,  like  all 
other  alloys,  fusing  at  a  low  temperature,  and  of  which  tin  forms  the 
principal  part,  has  never  obtained  a  universal  popularity,  and  although 
it  has  from  time  to  time  been  much  improved  by  different  exjieri- 
menters,  ...  it  does  not  seem  likely  that  it  will  become  the  substitute 
for  rubber."  § 

Gutta-percha,  for  bases,  was  first  introduced  in  England,  by  Edwin 
Trueman,  about  1851.  He  called  his  process  auropladij,  from  the 
fact  that  his  finished  bases  were  electro-gilded.  The  dentists  of  this 
country  immediately  began  experimenting,  and  in  1855  N.  B.  Slayton, 
of  Madison,  Indiana,  brought  out  his  "  colored  gutta-percha  base."  || 
Although  it  had  first  been  designed  for  permanent  sets,  a  short  i)eriod 
of  exjjerimenting  proved  it  not  entirely  successful  as  sucli ;  and  Mr. 

*  New  York  Dental  Kecorder,  vol.  v.  p.  61. 

t  Ibid.,  vol.  iv.  p.  286. 

\  Hiirris'.s  Princij)les  and  Practice  of  Dental  Surgery. 

§  lieport  on  Mechanical  Dentistry,  American  Dental  Association,  meeting  of 
1875. 

II  This  was  simply  Trueman's  base  under  another  name.  They  were  both 
formed  of  wire  frame-work  (gold  generally)  covered  with  gutta-percha.  True- 
man's  was  afterwards  electro-gilded,  while  Slayton'-s  was  not. 


30  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

Slavton  claimed  value  fur  it  only  in  temporary  dentures;  for  which 
purpose  it  attained  to  a  considerable  popularity;  which,  however, 
was  not  endurinij,  and  the  compound  has  long  been  abandoned  as  a 
base. 

Vidcnnitc. — In  I80I,  the  publiciition  of  Nelson  Goodyear's  process 
for  making  the  hard  rubber  compound,  afterward  called  "vulcanite," 
turned  the  attention  of  those  interested  in  many  manufactures  to  the 
adaptation  of  this  material,  \vhi('h  was  announced  to  be  a  substitute 
for  horn,  bone,  and  ivory,  as  susceptible  of  being  colored,  and  as 
having  all  the  plasticity  of  gutta-percha  or  caoutchouc,  while  exempt 
from  the  action  of  heat,  cold,  and  acids. 

With  such  a  combination  of  properties  in  one  material,  it  seems 
unaccountable  that  the  dental  world  did  not  at  once  adopt  the  new 
discover}'.  It  was  not  until  1855  that  Charles  Goodyear,  Jr.,  obtained 
in  England  a  patent  for  making  a  dental  i)late  of  hard  rubber,  in 
which  the  teeth  were  secured  before  the  compound  was  vulcanized. 
This  was  the  first  recorded  or  published  suggestion  of  this  use  of  the 
new  material,  which  contains  not  only  the  adaptation  of  vulcanite,  but 
also  the  use  of  the  mould  as  now'  employed.  It  is  true  that  the  Cum- 
mings  patent,  so  widely  known,  has  been  sustained  by  the  courts  as 
possessing  the  merit  of  invention  in  both  these  respects ;  but  neither 
the  Cummings  caveat  of  1852,  his  application  of  1855,  nor  his  appli- 
cation of  1804  mention  the  use  of  a  mould;  and  it  is  not  until  his 
rcis.^-ne  of  1865  that  we  find  he  had  included  this  part  of  the  process; 
which  he  did  by  then  embodying  the  description  contained  in  Good- 
year's  English  patent  of  1855. 

The  mould  (the  very  heart  of  the  vulcanite  process)  was  first  derived 
from  Dr.  Royce's  experiments  Avith  poured  tin  plates  in  1837-38; 
and  was  perfected  by  Dr.  George  E.  Hawes  in  1850,  also  in  connec- 
tion with  poured  tin,  as  before  noticed.*  It  is  probable  that  from 
these  inventors  Mr.  (loodyear  derived  his  method. 

In  1856,  Dr.  Putnam,  of  New  York,  experimented  extensively 
with  the  vulcanite.  The  principal  difficulty  he  encountered  was  in 
imj)roving  the  objectionable  color  of  the  material. 

The  general  practice  in  this  construction  has  always  been  accord- 
ing to  the  process  of  Nelson  Goodyear,  by  packing  the  moulds  before 
closing  them ;  and  so  perfect  was  this  process,  in  its  original  form, 
that  almost  no  essential  improvements  upon  it  have  been  made.  The 
process  of  Dewar  (English,  18G0),  operated  by  first  closing  the  mould 

*  American  Juiirnal  of  Dental  Science,  2d  Series,  vol.  i.  p.  3,  and  former  refer- 
ences. 


MECHANICAL   DENTISTRY.  31 

aiitl  then  forcing  the  composition  into  it  with  a  cylinder  containing  a 
piston  (as  a  syringe),  has  never  obtained  any  very  wide  employment 
in  this  country. 

The  Vulcanite  Litigation. — To  attempt  a  critical  and  detailed  re- 
view of  this  subject  woidd  occupy  a  volume  larger  than  this  one. 
We  shall  note  only  the  most  prominent  facts  in  connection  with  it. 

Subsequent  to  the  patent  of  Cliarles  Goodyear,  Jr.,  for  dental 
plates,  before  mentioned,  John  A.  Cummings  obtained  (June  7th, 
1864)  another  in  this  country  for  a  similar  purj^ose.  Cummings  had 
filed  a  caveat  in  the  matter  as  far  back  as  1852,  and  had  applied  for 
a  patent  in  April,  1855;  which  application  was  rejected.  Another 
was  more  successful;  and  a  patent  was  finally  issued  to  him  in  1864, 
as  described;  and  reissued  January  10th  and  March  21st,  1865. 

The  almost  universal  applicability  and  consequent  value  of  the 
ne\y  material  led  many  to  endeavor  to  secure  a  share  in  the  profits 
sure  to  arise  from  it;  and  several  new  processes  for  its  manufacture 
Avere  devised  and  patented.  Chief  among  such  of  these  as  especially 
related  to  dentistry  were  the  following:  that  of  Edwin  L.  Simpson, 
of  Newbrough  and  Fagan,  and  of  AVilliam  Muller. 

In  1855-6,  Dr.  C.  S.  Putnam  was  prominent  in  introducmg  the 
material  and  process  before  the  dentists  of  New  York  and  the  vicin- 
ity, under  the  patronage  of  Charles  Goodyear,  Jr.  Others  also  en- 
gaged in  its  introduction,  under  one  or  other  of  the  various  patentees 
and  companies;  and  the  profession  began  to  use  vulcanite  largely. 

The  several  original  ])atcnts  of  the  Goodyears  and  Cummings  re- 
lating to  dental  bases  passed  through  a  variety  of  transfers  and  assign- 
ments, and  finally  to  the  ownership  of  the  Goodyear  Dental  Vul- 
canite Company.  In  the  course  of  their  transmigrations,  suits  against 
alleged  infi'ingcrs  were  instituted,  which  resulted  uniformly  in  favor 
of  the  jilaintiffs. 

In  the  midst  of  this  litigation  the  dentists  occupied  an  anomalous 
position.  Their  necessities  called  for  the  use  of  the  material  in  dis- 
pute, which  they  could  obtain  only  at  the  expense  of  license  fees 
and  the  high  prices  charged  for  the  gum;  and  it  was  even •  impossible 
to  clearly  determine,  amid  the  various  questions  of  title  and  right  to 
sell  then  pending  in  the  courts,  as  to  the  value  of  any  license  held  or 
proposed  to  be  bought;  for  each  new  claimant  offered,  and  sold,  such 
licenses,  insisting  that  they  would  protect  the  buyer  against  all  attacks 
of  adverse  parties. 

That  all  these  representations  of  the  conflicting  licensors  were  not 
equally  valuable,  the  dentists  who  had  attended  to  them  soon  found 


32  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAN   DENTISTRY. 

to  their  cost ;  for  tlie  owners  of  the  Goodyear  and  Cumniings  patents 
attacked  as  well  the  dentists  Avho  used,  as  the  licensor  who  sold,  any 
vulcanite  other  than  their  own.  Many  dentists,  either  intimidated 
by  threats,  or  not  desirous  of  litigation,  acceded  to  the  demands  of 
the  rubber  companies;  but  some  held  stoutly  out,  and  were  accord- 
ingly sued. 

The  feeling  in  the  profession  against  the  vulcanite  patentees,  and 
their  action,  became  ver}-^  decided;  and,  early  in  the  history  of  rub- 
ber litigations,  dental  protective  societies  and  unions  were  formed  in 
all  parts  of  the  country,  for  the  purpose  of  assisting  any  who  might 
sustain  suits  brought  against  them  for  the  use  of  vulcanite.  Contri- 
butions were  made,  and  considerable  sums  raised  to  this  end;  and 
many  of  the  profession  assumed  a  posture  of  defense.  The  United 
States  Dental  Protective  Union,  in  Boston,  the  New  York  Dental 
Protective  Union,  and  the  American  Dental  Protective  Society,  Avere, 
perhaps,  the  most  prominent  of  these  associations. 

In  October,  1864,  suit  wa.s  commenced,  on  the  part  of  the  Dental 
Vulcanite  Company,  against  Isaac  J.  AVcthcrbee,  a  dentist  of  Boston. 
But  a  decision  was  rendered  against  the  defendant  in  May,  1866,  and 
the  case  was  not  appealed. 

In  ^larch,  1868,  a  suit  was  brought  by  the  Goodyear  Dental  Vul- 
canite Company  against  George  Evans,  of  New  York,  who  held  a 
license  under  the  Simpson  patent;  which  was  declared  an  infringe- 
ment of  the  Goodyear  patents,  and  the  cause  was  given  to  the  plain- 
tiffs and  an  injunction  issued. 

In  Sej)tcmber,  1868,  suit  was  begun  by  the  same  plaintiffs  against 
Benoni  E.  Gardner,  of  Rhode  Island,  who  held  under  NcAvbrough  & 
Pagan's  patents.  At  first,  this  case  was  defended  by  Xewbrough; 
but,  before  the  cause  came  to  a  final  hearing,  he  entered  into  an 
arrangement  with  the  plaintiffs  by  which  they  became  the  owners  of 
his  patents,  and  thus  his  licensees  Avere  left  to  shift  for  themselves. 
The  Gardner  case  was  decided  in  favor  of  the  plaintiffs  in  the  Circuit 
Court  in  Rhode  Island;  but  an  appeal  was  taken  to  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court,  where  the  decision  of  the  lower  tribunal  was 
sustained. 

Between  the  taking  of  this  appeal,  hoMcver,  and  its  hearing,  facts 
came  out,  and  revelations  were  made,  which  seemed  to  point  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  case,  as  presented,  was  a  collusive  one.  Acting  on 
this  information,  Dr.  Samuel  S.  White,  on  behalf  of  himself  and 
many  others,  dentists,  moved  the  Supreme  Court  to  dismiss  the  ap- 
peal ;  which,  after  argument,  Avas  done,  and  an  order  made  to  recall 


lIECHANfCAL   DENTISTRY.  30 

the  mandate  that  had  been  issued  to  the  Circuit  Court.  This  con- 
clusion made  it  necessary  for  the  rubber  company,  if  they  would 
establish  their  claims,  to  bring  new  suits.  This  they  did ;  and  such 
suits  now  multij)lied  ;  it  was  therefore  necessary  to  come  to  some  final 
action  which  should  determine  a  definite  status  of  the  parties  toward 
each  other.  In  this  crisis  Dr.  "White  was  requested  by  many  of  the 
most  prominent  dentists  to  assist  in  the  preparation  of  a  case  which 
should  contain  all  that  belonged  to  the  dental  profession  by  discovery, 
use,  and  publication  ;  the  expenses  of  the  litigation  to  be  paid  by 
voluntary  contributions  from  the  profession.  An  agreement  Mas  now 
made  between  counsel  whereby  the  proofs  to  be  taken  in  a  certain  case 
against  Daniel  H.  Smith,  a  dentist  of  Holyoke,  Massachusetts,  should 
also  be  taken  as  the  proofs  in  several  other  causes  then  pending;  thus 
making  this  a  test  case.  On  the  14th,  15th,  and  16th  of  January, 
1874,  this  case  Avas  argued  in  Portland,  Me.,  before  tlie  Hon.  George 
F.  Shepley.  .  The  opinion  of  the  court,  sustaining  the  patent,  was 
given  May  8th,  3  874;  and  the  final  decree  was  entered  August  18th, 
1874.  Immediately  thereafter  all  the  necessary  formalities  were  com- 
plied with  (the  suj)ersedeas  bond  filed,  etc.)  and  an  a])pcal  to  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  perfected;  thus  arresting  the 
execution  of  the  judgment  against  Dr.  Smith.  In  this  conclition  the 
case  still  rests,  not  having  been  yet  reached  on  the  calendar  of  that  court. 

The  cases  noted  are  the  princij)al  among  many  A\hich  have  been 
instituted,  and  which  we  are  compelled,  through  want  of  space,  to 
pass  in  silence.  Dr.  White  received  the  approval  of  the  profession 
for  his  action  in  their  behalf,  as  witness  the  resolutions  of  thanks  to 
him  by  the  American  Dental  Association,*  the  Harris  Dental  Asso- 
ciation,t  the  New  York  State  Dental  Society,^  the  Merrimack  Valley 
Dental  Association, §  and  many  others. 

CoUodion. — This  form  of  base  material  was  devised  and  patented  in 
England,  in  1859,  by  John  Macintosh.  It  was  at  first  received  with 
indifierence,  the  attention  of  the  ])rofession  being  largely  absorlx'd  by 
vulcanite  at  the  time;  Init  when  harrasscd  by  the  rubber  companies, 
and  when  all  were  in  search  of  a  substitute  for  vulcanite,  collodion 
received  greater  attention,  and  was  experimented  with  sufficiently  to 
prove  that  by  its  then  process  of  manufacture  no  reliable  results  could 
be  obtained.  An  improvement  was  then  made  by  Dr.  J.  A.  McClel- 
land, who  introduced  his  material  under  tiie  somewhat  flowerv  title  of 


*  Transactions  of  Amcr.  Dental  Assoc,  for  1872,  p.  28,  and  for  1874,  p.  21. 
f  Dental  Cosmo?,  vol.  xv.  p.  3-34.  %  Ibid.,  p.  41-3.  ^  Ibid.,  p.  41o 

4 


34  HISTORY    OF    AMEniCAX    DKXTISTRV. 

Base- Pen )•/. — At  the  first  appearauoe  of  tliis  eonipduiid  tliere  were 
fcniiid  in  it  many  (leferts;  wliicli  were  laroely  corrected,  and  the 
proecss  as^iunu'd  sonic  importance,  particnlarly  in  the  AVest.  It  is 
ref^arded  at  present  Avith  nuich  less  favor  than  formerly,  as  appears 
by  the  following  extract  from  tlie  Transactions  of  the  American 
Dental  Association  for  1874:  "Rose-pearl,  owing  to  the  comi)licatcd 
method  of  its  manipulation,  has  not  grown  into  that  general  I'avor 
which  was  anticipated  for  it.  The  material  itself,  in  its  improved 
form,  appears  to  possess  many  of  the  properties  necessary  for  a  good 
and  durable  base." 

C(/h(/oi(L— In  1870,  Isaiah  Smith  Hyatt  and  John  W.  Hyatt,  Jr., 
obtained  a  patent  for  a  method  which  has  apparently  solved  the 
problem  of  converting  collodion  into  a  homogeneous  and  durable 
solid,  in  masses.     To  their  conn)ound  they  gave  the  above  name. 

This  is,  essentially,  a  mixture  of  camphor  gum,  finely  comminuted, 
with  cellulose  fibre.  Being  naturally  ef)Iorlcss,  it  requires  only  a  small 
proportion  of  coloring  matter  to  i)r(jducc  any  desired  tint.  It  has 
been  found  to  be  strong,  light,  plastic  under  heat,  and  elastic  when 
cold.  It  can  be  remoulded  frequently  without  injury,  and  may  be 
repaired  easily  and  promptly  throuj^h  its  perfect  welding  properties. 
An  objection  occurring  in  its  first  forms  of  manufacture — that  of 
warping — has  been  nearly  obviated,  and  the  new  composition  has 
become  rapidly,  widely,  and  well  known,  and  is  in  very  extensive 
use  as  a  substitute  for  rubber. 

Porcelain. — This  material,  used  as  a  ba.se,  w-as  introduced  to  the 
profession  in  this  country  by  Mahlon  Loomis,  of  Cambridgeport, 
Massachus(.'tts,  in  1854,  although  the  making  of  teeth  and  j)late  of 
porcelain,  in  one  piece,  was  the  method  practiced  in  the  first  fabrica- 
tion of  j)orcelain  dent^u'cs  in  France,  in  1774.  Mr.  Loomis  had 
great  confidence  in  the  ultimate  succ-ess  of  his  process,  and  regarded 
it  as  easy  of  manipulation  and  adajjtation.  But  the  profession  en- 
countered very  great  difiiculties  with  it  in  these  directions,  principal 
among  them  being  tjic  almost  impossibility  of  properly  governing 
the  shrinkage  of  the  material  in  firing ;  and  Mr,  Loomis's  j^rocess, 
although  experimented  with  to  some  extent,  never  attained  to  much 
importance. 

Dr.  Dunn  made  many  improvements  in  this  form  of  base.  In 
18G7  the  Committee  on  Mechanical  Dentistry  in  the  American  Dental 
Association  noticed  his  processes  in  the  following  commendatoiy  lan- 
guage: "We  would  further  call  your  attention  to  a  style  of  work 
known  as  the  porcelain  base,  presented  by  Dr.  Dunn,  of  Delaware, 


MECHANICAL    DENTISTRY.  "     35 

wliic'li,  with  its  present  improvements,  promises  to  a  great  extent, 
at  least,  to  supersede  riil)ber  for  full  sets." 

But  the  manufacture  of  this  base  is  difficult  and  uncertain,  and  not 
within  the  capabilities  of  time  or  training  of  most  of  the  profession ; 
hence  it  has  not  come  into  general  use,  although,  when  projjerly  made, 
it  constitutes  perhaps  as  excellent  a  base  as  has  ever  been  employed. 
"  As  the  highest  'production  of  skill  and  art,  a  well  and  faultlessly 

made  plate  of  porcelain  stands  pre-eminent But  the  more 

than  ordinary  skill  and  experience  requisite  in  the  carving  of  the 
denture,  t0i>ether  with  the  difficultv  in  calculating:  or  niakino;  allow- 
ance  for  the  uncertain  shrinkage  of  these  plates  (which  shrinkage, 
unless  accurately  provided  for,  must  destroy  the  close  adaptation  to 
the  parts  to  be  fitted),  will  necessarily  limit  its  use  to  a  few  experts. 
Specialists  can  alone  hope  to  become  universally  successful."* 

Several  other  materials,  in  addition  to  those  named,  have  been  from 
time  to  time  brought  to  public  notice,  in  almost  every  case  accompanied 
by  the  assurance  that  the  long-desired  perfection  in  bases  had  been  at 
length  reached.  AVe  may  mention  as  instances,  the  electrotype  process, 
in  which  a  properly  prepared  cast  received  a  galvanic  deposit  of  the 
metal  desired,  thus  producing  a  perfect  fac-simile  of  the  parts  at  the 
minimum  of  expense  and  trouble,  the  durability  and  freedom  from 
hurtful  extraneous  influences  being  limited  only  by  the  extent  of  those 
qualities  in  the  metal  employed;  and  the  adcuaantinc,  a  base  of  cast 
fasible  metal. 

These  attemj)ts,  however,  have  generally  been  unattended  by  the 
success  and  benefits  hoped  for  from  them;  and  gold,  vulcanite,  cellu-. 
loid,  and  platinum  are  to-day,  as  they  have  been  for  many  years,  the 
principal  materials  on  which  mechanical  dentistry  relies. 

ATTACHING   ARTIFICIAL   TEETH   TO    BASES. 

Riveting. — The  first  practiced  method  of  securing  teeth  to  the  base 
was  by  rivets.  This  applies  more  particularly  to  ivory  and  natural 
teeth,  although  mineral  teeth  (other  than  the  French)  were  for  a  con- 
siderable  time  often  fiistened  in  this  manner.  The  ordinary  practice 
with  human,  animal,  or  hippopotamus  ivory  (called  dentine  by  llobin- 
sonf)  teeth  will  best  be  described  l)y  extracts  from  his  work. 

"  The  exact  point  [on  the  plate]  where  the  rivet  is  to  be  inserted 
....  must  now  be  ascertained.     This  is  done  by  temporarily  fixing 

*  Report  on  Moclianical  Dentistry,  American  Dental  Association,  1875. 
t  The  Surgical,  Jlechanical,  and  Medical  Treatment  of  the  Teeth,  by  James 
Robinson,  London,  18-t6. 


06  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

the  tootli  in  their  intended  placas  on  tlie  plate  bv  means  of  a  piece  of 
warm  bwswax,  on  the  removal  of  which  a  raised  point  will  be  ob- 
served, corresponding  to  the  o})eninirs  in  the  teeth ;  and  at  this  point 
the  rivet  is  to  be  inserted  by  first  drilling  a  hole  of  the  same  size  as 
the  gold  wire  intended  to  be  used  for  the  rivet,  and  soldering  it  [the 
rivet]  to  the  plate. 

"  The  teeth  (if  natural)  are  to  be  listened  on  the  pivots  by  means 
of  a  little  floss  silk  wound  round  the  latter,  which  must  be  previoasly 
indented  or  jagged  with  a  file.  Moisten  the  silk  with  mastic  varnish, 
and  press  the  teoth  firmly  on.  A\'hen  mineral  teeth  are  used,  and  the 
length  of  the  pivot  will  allow,  the  above  method  of  fixing  may  still 
be  employed." 

Before  the  publication  of  Mr.  Robinson's  work,  it  was  often  cus- 
tomary to  allow  the  rivets  to  pass  entirely  through  the  teeth,  and  to 
rivet  them,  after  placing  the  teeth  in  position,  by  light  taps  of  a  small 
hammer.  This  method  was  found  inefficient,  as  the  head  formed  on 
the  rivet  was  worn  or  broken  away  in  mastication,  and  often  required 
re-riveting.  In  mineral  teeth  this  fimlt  was  finally  corrected  by  fixing 
the  rivet  or  wire  in  the  substance  of  the  tooth  before  baking  or  "  firing" 
the  latter,  though  this  transformation  in  tooth  fiibrication  took  place 
slowly,  and  was  preceded  by  baking  into  the  tooth  a  i)latina  tube, 
which  passed  entirely  through.  In  these  cases,  the  tooth  was  fiu^tened 
generally  as  follows, — to  again  quote  Mr.  Robinson :  *'  Place  the 
teeth  on  their  rivets  and  insert  a  small  quantity  of  sulphur  between 
the  rivets  and  the  tubing ;  hold  the  plate  over  a  spirit-lamp  until  the 
sulphur  melts;  then  allow  it  to  cool  gradually,  and  it  will  be  found 
that  tlie  teeth  are  securely  fixed  to  the  rivets."  Mr.  Robinson  adds, 
that  "  some  dentists  use  pewter  solder  in  the  same  manner ;  it  is  objec- 
tionable, inasmuch  as  it  yields  a  constant  metallic  taste  in  the  mouth." 

The  French  mineral  teeth,  having  a  groove  flanked  by  platinum 
studs  lengthwise  of  their  backs,  were  fastened  either  in  the  manner 
first  described,  by  pivots,  or  by  soldering  a  hacking  or  gold  plate  to 
the  platinum  studs. 

^^'ith  those  mineral  teeth  possessing  a  protruding  perpendicular 
l)iv()t  in  their  l)ases,  the  method  of  procedure  will  be  sufficiently 
obvious  without  descri})tion.  But  as  correct  principles  of  manufac- 
ture became  gradually  aj^parent,  Xha  pivot  was  changed  to  the  piv,  and 
transferred  to  the  back  of  the  tooth;  upon  which  necessarily  followed 
the  operation  of  harhinr/  and  sokleriny,  one  sufficiently  familiar  to  the 
profession  at  this  time. 

The  processes  mentioned  possessed  inherent  defects  which. grew  to 


MECHANICAL   DENTISTRY.  37 

be  more  obvious  as  dentistiy  progressed.  A  wider  range  of  materials, 
and  the  inereased  demand  for  better  artifieial  dentures,  produced  a 
necessarily  consequent  improvement  in  processes;  and,  as  each  one 
engaged  in  mechanical  dentistry  strove  to  outstrip  his  fellow-workers 
in  the  race  for  perfection,  the  modes  of  securing  teeth  to  the  base 
soon  became  vastly  more  varied  and  perfect  than  had  been  before 
supposed  possible. 

Probably  the  greatest  advances  have  been  made  in  the  direction  of 
Continuous  Gum. — This  term  is  used  to  designate  the  fastening  of 
porcelain  teeth  to  plates  by  means  of  a  fusible  compound,  applied  on 
the  base  and  around  the  teeth,  moulded  and  colored  to  represent  the 
natural  gum,  and  finally  fused ;  thus  making  an  almost  liomogeneous 
mass  of  the  teeth,  gums,  and  plate. 

The  first  api)earance  of  this  branch  of  the  art  was  between  the 
years  1815  and  1820  in  France.  M.  de  Chemant,  who,  as  has  been 
stated,  claimed  and  was  allowed  patents  for  the  invention  of  mineral, 
porcelain,  or  incorruptible  teeth,  first  constructed  his  dentures  in  one 
piece,  the  gum  part  being  painted  after  vitrifaction.  This  })aint  was 
easily  destroyed  by  Avear;  and  MM.  Fonzi  and  Delabarre  (1815  to 
1818),  substituted  jeweler's  enamel  for  De  Chemant's  paint.  This 
cracked  and  wore  away,  and  M.  Delabarre  (1819-20)  conceived  the 
idea  of  imbedding  the  separate  teeth  in  the  base  and  joining  them 
thereto  by  a  composition  which  should  fuse  at  a  lower  heat  than  the 
teeth  or  base,  and,  being  proj)erly  moulded,  Avith  the  coloring  matter 
in  the  substance  of  the  material,  should  thas  form  a  continuous  gum 
of  indestructible  color,  and  Avhich  should  also  fasten  the  teeth  in  their 
places.  This  M.  Delabarre  did,  and  thus  constructed  the  first  "con- 
tinuous gum." 

In  this  country,  single  teeth  and  blocks  with  gums,  called  "gum 
teeth,"  were  first  made  about  the  year  1835. 

In  this  year.  Dr.  Henry  Villers,  then  of  Albany,  New  York, 
introduced  what  he  ciills*  "the  method  of  uniting  single  teeth  into 
full  sets,  in  masses  with  gums,  and  fixing  them  to  gold  plates."  Dr. 
Villers  pivoted  his  teeth  to  the  2)latc,  not  relying  on  the  gum  compo- 
sition to  fasten  them.  In  the  same  year.  Dr.  Josephus  Broekway,  of 
the  same  place,  made  "many  sets  of  upper  teeth,  'continuous  gum,'"f 
presumably  in  the  same  manner  as  Dr.  Villers. 


*  Letter  of  Dr.  Villers,  in  New  York  Dental  Recorder,  vol.  vii.  p.  52. 
■j-  Introductory  Lecture  before  the  New  York   State  Third   District  Dental 
Association,  January  12th,  1869. 


38  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

In  1840,  Samuel  W.  Stockton  made  sinirle  and  block  teeth  with 
colored  gums.  Dr.  George  E,  Hayes,  of  Buffalo,  also  made  such 
teeth  in  this  year,  having,  at  the  time,  never  seen  or  heard  of  any 
such. 

On  September  18th,  1847,  a  patent  was  issued  to  M.  I^evett  and  H. 
Davis  for  "an  invention  for  concealing  the  metal  work  used  in  the 
insertion  of  artificial  teeth."*  This  Avas  what  was  then,  and  has 
since  been  known  as"Levett's  Patent  Enamel."  It  was  found,  on 
experiment,  to  crack  and  scale  off,  and  so  proved  to  be  of  little  value.f 
^I.  Levett,  liowever,  sold  "rights"  to  numerous  dentists.  He  also 
j)roposed  to  the  New  York  State  Society  of  Dental  Surgeons  to  grant 
rights  under  his  patent  to  its  members  for  one  hundred  dollars  each, 
for  seven  years'  use,  ten  per  cent,  of  the  amount  of  such  sales  to  be 
])laced  in  the  funds  of  the  Society ;  which  proposition  was  accepted. 

In  1834,  Dr.  Thomas  Harrison,  of  Buffalo,  commenced  experi- 
menting in  continuous  gum  Mork,  and  in  1843  made  a  set  of  such 
teetli,  which  were  in  use  for  eight  years  thereafter.;};  Dr.  Jonathaii 
Dodge  also  experimented  in  184o  with  this  work.§ 

About  the  years  1846-7,  Dr.  John  Allen,  of  Cincinnati,  began  the 
investigation  of  this  subject,  and  Dr.  AVilliam  Hunter  also  exj)eri- 
mented  at  this  time.  On  the  29th  of  April,  1851,  Dr.  Allen  filed 
a  caveat  in  the  patent  office  for  "a  fusible  cement,  of  which  an 
artificial  gum  is  formed,  applicable  to  artificial  teeth,  and  by  means 
of  which  they  are  set."||  At  the  twelfth  annual  meeting  of  the 
American  Societ)^  of  Dental  Surgeons,  in  Philadelphia,  August,  1851, 
Dr.  Allen  exhil)ited  specimens  of  his  manufacture.  At  the  annual 
meeting  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  Association  of  Dental  Surgeons, 
held  at  Louisville,  Ky.,  in  September,  1851,  Dr.  Allen  again  ex- 
iiil)ited  his  invention,  and  a  resolution  was  offered  awarding  him  a 
gold  medal;  Avhich  resolution,  however,  after  a  spirited  discussion, 
wa.s  not  acted  on. 

In  December,  1851,  Dr.  Allen  obtained  a  patent  for  his  invention, 
and,  a  year  later,  began  a  suit  against  Dr.  AVilliam  Hunter  for  an 
alleged  infringement,  which  cause  was  decided  in  favor  of  Hunter. 


*  Vide  specification  of  patent. 

f  C.  T.  Cushmnn,  in  .Vmerican  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  2d  Scries,  vol.  i. 
p.  63. 

J  Testimonj'  of  Dr.  H.,  in  the  Allen-Hunter  case,  Dental  Register  of  the  "West, 
vol.  viii.  p.  286. 

§  Ibid.,  p.  292. 

II  Dental  Register  of  the  West,  vol.  viii.  p.  284. 


MECHANICAL   DENTISTRY.  89 

Finally,  in  June,  1855,  appeared  a  card  from  Dr.  Hunter  in  the 
dental  periodicals,  announcing  that  "the  unpleasant  controversy 
l)etween  Dr.  Allen  and  myself,  Avhich  led  to  the  suit,  has  been 
amicably  reconciled  since  its  termination,"  and  that  Dr.  Allen  would 
henceforth  be  entitled  to  "any  advantages  he  or  the  public  may  find 
in  any  ideas  that  have  been  regarded  as  peculiarly  my  own." 

Such  is  an  exceedingly  condensed  account  of  a  trial  which  excited 
considerable  interest  in  the  profession  at  the  time.  Dr.  Allen  con- 
tinued the  sale  of  "instructions"  in  the  use  of  his  compound. 

But  there  weve  great  inconveniences  in  its  use.  Some  of  these  are 
mentioned  in  a  Report  on  Mechanical  Dentistry  to  the  Associated 
Alumni  of  Americiin  Dental  Colleges,  March,  1854,*  by  M.  D. 
French ;  who  states  that  "  the  plate  is  liable  to  spring,  and  the  gum 
to  crack  off,  and  many  dentists  who  adopted  it  practiced  it  only  to 
find  their  high  hopes  of  its  ultimate  succ&ss  disappointed,  and  have 
hence  abandoned  it  altogether."  Dr.  French  hints,  however,  that 
this  ill  success  may  be  attributable  to  "an  iniproj)er  manner  of  com- 
pounding and  working  the  material,  or  an  imperfect  adaptation  of 
the  plate  to  the  mouth."  In  these  conjectures,  he  was  })robably  right ; 
for  the  invention  is  now  in  use  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  takes 
rank  as  nearly  the  most  perfect  of  artificial  dentures.  The  difficul- 
ties experienced  in  its  preparation  and  manipulation  still  exist,  and 
form  an  effectual  barrier  to  its  general  employment;  as  only  great 
skill  and  experience  may  make  it  a  success;  and  therefore  it  is  con- 
fined almost  to  specialists.  But,  certainly,  in  their  hands,  the  process 
produces  very  elegant  dentures. 

In  order  to  overcome  the  obstacles  met  with  in  the  working  of 
porcelain  continuous  gum,  many  devices  have  been  presented.  The 
most  prominent  of  these,  and  the  one  which  has  attained  the  strongest 
hold  in  mechanical  dentistry,  is  the  use  of 

Vulcanite. — This  material  possesses  the  advantages  of  facility  of 
working,  cheapness,  and  perfection  of  adaptation,  in  a  high  degree; 
and  its  ase  has,  therefore,  become  greatly  extended.  It  is  often 
applied  on  gold  plates,  and  thus  produces  very  excellent  dentures. 

The  more  fusible  of  the  metals  have  also  been  much  employed 
in  this  kind  of  work.  Tin  was  first  used  in  this  way,  in  1838,  by 
Dr.  Royce,  of  Newburgh,  N.  Y.,  the  originator  of  the  "  poured  tin" 
process.  Amalgam  was  also  employed  by  packing  it  around  the  teeth 
placed  on  the  plate,  and  the  mercury  afterward  evaporated  by  heat. 

*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  2d  Series,  vol.  iv.  p.  531. 


40  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

At  first,  tilt'  adliesion  of  the  anialgaiii  to  tlio  metal  base  was  relied  on 
to  support  the  teeth;  but  sufficient  strength  was  not  found  to  be  thus 
attained,  and  the  teeth  were  then  soldered  on  as  usual,  amaliram  being 
finally  used  to  finish  the  work  and  close  all  crevices.  The  evapora- 
tion of  the  mercury,  however,  left  the  added  amalgam  ])orous,  and 
tluis  allowed  the  deposition  of  the  liquids  of  the  mouth  in  the  very 
substance  of  the  material  used  to  prevent  such  action;  and,  although 
various  means  were"  devised  to  remove  this  objection,  such  as  flowing 
the  otherwise  finished  work  with  solder,  the  process  never  received 
any  extended  favor,  and  soon  fell  into  entire  disuse.  Gold  was 
mostly  used  for  this  amalgam,  being  employed  in  the  form  of  foil, 
and  laid  on  and  mixed  with  mercury  and  sulphuric  acid  in  a  wedg- 
wood  mortar. 

SECURING   ARTIFICIAL   DENTURES    IN   THE    MOUTH, 

The  old  methods  of  securing  natural  and  ivory  teeth  in  the  mouth 
by  ligatures  and  pivoting  have  been  already  treated  of;  and  this  sec- 
tion will  consequently  be  devoted  to  the  manipulation  of  porcelain 
substitutes. 

With  these,  at  first,  the  modes  were  similar  to,  because  taken  from, 
the  treatment  of  natural  and  ivory  teeth ;  being  varied  only  by  the 
different  necessities  of  porcelain. 

Pivo'.ing  was  the  most  popular  manner  of  introduction,  and  was 
practiced  wherever  the  circumstances  would  allow,  with  general  as- 
surance of  success.  The  operation  was  certainly  meritorious ;  for  it 
h:\.s  survived  all  the  mutations  of  practice,  and  is  almost  as  much  in 
favor  to-day,  as  it  was  fifty  years  ago. 

The  modes  of  procedure  were  varions,  and  only  the  most  promi- 
nmt,  through  excellence  or  ingenuity,  will  be  noted. 

Perhaps  the  most  used  of  all  methods  was  that  in  which  a  })late 
tooth  had  soldered  on  it  a  strong  metal  (gold  or  platinum)  pivot.  In 
some  ciuses  the  hole  in  the  root  was  plugged  with  vood,  which  was 
j)erforated  lengthwise  and  received  the  pivot,  previously  squared  on 
its  sides.  Wood  for  this  purpose  is  now  almost  abandoned ;  but  has 
substitutes,  as  gutta-percha,  or  oxychloride. 

Another  method  was  by  wood  pivots ;  the  teeth  having  holes  in 
their  b:tse  for  the  insertion  of  the  j)ivots  or  pegs.  This  method  is  in 
full  use  at  tins  time,  although  it  has  been  strenuously  opposed  by 
many  who  have  insisted  that  the  wof»d  absorbs  moisture  and  thus 
iinluces  decay  in  the  root,  and  that  the  swelling  of  the  moistened  wood 
endangers  the  safetv  of  both  crown  and  root.     Bv  later  devices  in 


MECHANICAL    DENTISTRY.  41 

connection  witli  wood  pivots,  these  objections  liave  ])een  almost  en- 
tirely removed.  The  root,  having  been  properly  filed,  sometimes  re- 
ceives a  coating  of  gntta-percha,  warmed  or  in  solution,  on  which  the 
crown  is  tightly  thrust,  thus  making  a  comparatively  tight  joint. 
_  Other  materials,  as  the  various  i)lastic  fillings,  are,  or  have  been,  in 
use  in  this  manner. ' 

But,  previous  to  these  improved  modes,  it  was  not  considered  proper 
to  tightly  close  the  joint  between  root  and  crown.  On  the  contrary, 
canals  were  cut,  either  along  the  pivot  or  the  side  of  the  hole  in  the 
crown,  or  hollow  })ivots  were  used,  in  order  to  allow  the  escape  of 
any  pus  which  might  form  subsequent  to  the  operation.  INIore  cor- 
rect practice  has  since  decided,  however,  that  disease  should  be  cured 
or  removed  before  the  insertion  of  pivot  teeth. 

The  method  of  splitting  the  pivots  to  insure  their  retention,  was 
practiced  at  an  early  period.  The  pivot  was  often  scored,  before 
splitting,  into  barbed  points  on  its  sides,  to  aid  the  grasp  of  the  halves 
on  the  sidas  of  the  cavity  into  which  it  was  thrust. 

Various  devices  to  insure  correct  adaptation  of  the  crown  to  the 
root  have  been  invented.  The  pivot  counter-drill  has  been  long  in 
use  for  this  purpose.  Dr.  E.  ToAvnsend,  of  Philadelphia,  introduced 
the  oval  and  hollow  file,  one  fitting  exactly  into  the  other ;  the  first 
being  used  on  the  crown,  and  the  last  on  the  root ;  thus  securing  a 
very  perfect  adaptation. 

Vulcanite'  has  been  used  in  pivoting,  but  is  now  generally  aban- 
doned. A  gold  wire  wa.s  wrapped  with  gum,  which  was  vulcanized 
around  it,  and  the  pivots  cut  off  as  desired ;  or  the  vulcanite  wa.s 
formed  into  a  tube,  which  was  inserted  in  the  canal  of  the  root  and 
received  the  pivot ;  which  Avas  formed  from  the  Avire  on  which  the 
tube  had  been  vulcanized  and  thus  fitted  accurately. 

In  cases  where  decay  has  enlarged  the  root  canal  and  weakened 
the  walls,  oxychloride  is  used  to  advantage.  The  decay  being  re- 
moved, the  cavity  is  nearly  filled  Avith  moist  oxychloride ;  and  the 
crown  is  returned  to  its  place,  the  pivot  entering  the  plastic  filling, 
forcing  it  outward  and  upward  into  the  joint,  and  being  securely  re- 
tained upon  the  setting  of  the  oxychloride.  Much  of  the  success  of 
this  procedure  will  depend  u[)on  a  proper  proportioning  of  the  size  of  . 
the  pivot  and  canal  and  the  (piantity  of  plastic  filling.* 

Another  and  most  artistic  method  of  setting  a  pivot  tooth  is,  to 
enlarge  the  root  canal  so  that  it  may  be  filled  with  gold  around  a 

*  Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  v.  p.  219 


42  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

platinum  or  fjold  plate  pivot,  the  gold  filling  being  extended  so  as  to 
either  include  the  ba.se  of  the  porcelain  crown,  or  simply  to  grasp  and 
hold  lirndy  the  plate.* 

Chi^^ps  are  the  outgrowth  of"  the  old-time  ligature.  When  first 
used,  they  consisted  of  gold  wires  soldered  to  the  plates,  and  partly 
or  wholly  encircling  the  sound  teeth  which  were  sufficiently  near  the 
inserted  denture.  The  wires,  however,  were  soon  found  to  be  objec- 
tionable ;  as,  by  attrition  of  their  narrow  surfaces,  they  cut  into  the 
substance  of  the  teetli  they  encirclecl ;  and,  besides,  did  not  secure  a 
sufficiently  firm  and  unyielding  position  of  the  inserted  teeth.  They 
consequently  gave  place  to  flat  and  broad  bands  of  gold  or  silver ; 
Mhich  being  accurately  fitted,  gave  the  maximum  of  security  "vvith 
nearly  the  minimum  of  defects.  Dr.  James  Gardette,  of  l^hiladel- 
phia,  initiated  the  use  of  this  method.f  Its  utility  was,  at  first, 
questioned ;  but  it  lived  down  opposition,  and  beciime  firmlv  estab- 
lished. 

Still,  the  hard  surface  of  metal  in  contact  with  the  natural  teeth 
was  undesirable ;  and  clasps  have  been  fitted  with  gutta-percha  on 
their  inner  sides,  to  great  advantage.]: 

The  princijxil  difficulty  encountered  in  the  insertion  of  artificial 
dentures  has  been  their  proper  retention  in  situ.  In  pivoting,  this 
was,  by  the  very  nature  of  the  method,  fully  and  easily  secured  ;  but 
where  pivoting  was  impossible  or  inadmissible,  clasps  were  generally 
resorted  to,  and  succeeded  very  well  with  partial  dentures5  where  alone 
they  could  be  used.  But  in  cases  of  whole  dentures,  especially  u})pcr 
ones,  the  obstacles  encountered  were  great  and  numerous.  Loading 
the  plates  was  largely  practiced  with  lower  dentures,  and  consisted 
simjily  in  adding  weight  to  the  plate  by  fusing  metal  on  its  surface. 
This  method  is  no  longer  in  use. 

Sp)'inr/s  were,  for  a  long  time,  almost  the  only  manner  of  securing 
upper  dentures.  They  were  known  to  Fauchard,  in  1728,  as  appears 
by  the  following  passage  from  his  work,  vol.  ii.  p.  282  :  "  We  now 
use,  in  order  to  join  together  the  two  dentures,  hinges  and  springs  in 
the  form  of  a  screw,  or  simply  curved  in  a  spiral  manner." 

The  method  was,  to  form  a  spiral  s})ring  of  gold  wire,  in  the  ends 
of  which  were  fastened  pieces  having,  either  pins  at  right  angles,  or 
holes  in  the  same  direction.     Holes  being  drilled  from  side  to  side  in 

*  Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  xii.  p.  399. 

fBioicraphical  Notice  of  (the  late)  James  Gardette,  Surgeon-Dentist,  of  Phila- 
delphia (pubiishel  18501,  p.  17. 

%  Dental  News  Letter,  vol.  x.  p.  141. 


MECHANICAL   DENTISTRY.  43 

the  blocks  on  each  side  of  both  upper  and  lower  dentures,  or  headed 
pins  fastened  in  these  places  and  projecting  laterally,  the  springs  were 
slid  upon  the  pins  or  into  the  holes ;  and,  being  bent  backward  in  a 
semicircle,  served  by  their  tendency  to  straighten  themselves,  to  keep 
the  dentures  pressed  against  the  jaws.  Where  only  an  upper  denture 
was  required,  the  S2)rings  were  soldered  to  clasps  encircling  the  lower 
molars. 

The  disadvantages  attendant  upon  this  method  are  even  more  obvi- 
ous to-day  than  they  were  when  the  springs  were  used.  Among  them 
may  be  named,  impossibility  of  preventing  the  collection  of  secretions 
and  food  in  the  springs,  difficulty  of  cleansjng,  and  inconvenience  to 
the  wearer.  Apparent  as  these  objections  now  are,  they  were  also 
appreciated  at  the  time ;  and  some  mode  which  should  fill  their  place 
and  allow  of  their  discontinuance,  was  eagerly  sought. 

This  was  considered  to  have  been  found  in  the  principle  of  what 
Desirabode  calls  "  coadaptation."  About  the  year  1800,  Gardette,  of 
Philadelphia,  having  inserted  an  upper  denture,  temporarily  without 
springs,- was  surprised,  some  time  after,  upon  calling  on  his  patient  in 
order  to  supply  the  springs,  to  find  that  she  had,  by  use,  become  able 
to  retain  the  denture  perfectly.*  Dr.  Gardette  attributed  this  to  atmos- 
pheric pressure  on  the  plate,  and  afterward  constructed  his  upper  den- 
tures entirely  in  this  manner ;  and,  in  the  controversy  which  afterward 
ensued  on  this  subject,  its  discovery  was  claimed  for  him.  But  there 
is  abundance  of  proof  to  support  the  assertion  that  Dr.  Gardette's 
case  was  simply  one  of  excellent  adaptation  of  the  plate,  rendering  it 
easy  for  the  patient  to  support  the  denture  by  involuntary  and  in- 
stinctive movements  or  contractions  of  the  muscles  of  the  oral  cavity. 
In  support  of  this  view  we  may  cite  Dr.  Solyman  Brown  in  his 
"  Mechanical  Dentistry."  "■  Inasmuch  as  the  pieces  which  I  am  now 
describing,  are  those  which  by  some  have  been  called  *  suction  plates,' 
and  by  others  are  said  to  be  retained  in  position  by  atmospheric 
pressure,  I  deem  it  proper  in  this  place  to  express  an  opinion  .... 
that  few  pieces  of  this  kind  are  fixed  firmly  upon  the  gum,  and  used 
successfully  for  purposes  of  mastication,  by  mere  suction  or  atmos- 
pheric pressure,  without  any  aid  from  the  tongue,  lips,  cheeks,  and 
antagonizing  jaw."  "  The  manner  in  which  the  surrounding  parts 
operate  to  secure  such  a  plate  in  situ,  is  too  well  known  to  need  any 
illustration  even  to  the  youngest  student  of  our  art."  f 

*  Biographical  Notice  of  (the  late)  James  Gardette,  p.  19. 

f  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  1st  Series,  vol.  ii.  p.  2G7. 


44  mSTOKY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

It  i?:  certain,  liowover,  tliat  to  "atmospheric  pressure"  was  almost 
universally  attributed  the  results  obtained  bv  perfection  of  adapta- 
titm. 

In  1835,  Dr.  Chapin  A.  Harris  designed  what  he  calls  an  "air- 
chamber"  ;  being  simply  a  depression  in  the  surface  of  the  plate,  ])ro- 
jecting  downward  from  the  palatine  arch.  This  is  the  earliest  date 
recorded  for  the  use  of  "cavity  plates,"  as  they  afterward  came  to  be 
called.* 

In  1840  (July  3d),  Alfred  Riggs,  of  New  York,  received  a  patent 
for  a  chambered  plate  of  the  following  description:  "He  struck  a 
plate  to  fit  the  mouth  accurately,  and  perforated  a  portion  of  the  sur- 
face resting  on  the  palatine  vault  with  small  holes.  Over  this  a  plate 
was  struck  forming  a  chamber  about  one  line  in  dejith  at  the  centre, 
vanishing' to  the  alveolar  ridge,  and  soldered  firmly  to  it."t  This 
form  of  plate  has  been  abandoned,  because  of  the  drawing  of  the 
gums  into  the  apertures,  producing  inflammation, — and  because  it 
was  very  difficult  to  keep  clean. 

In  1842,  Amos  Johnson,  of  New  York,  made  a  cavity  plate  of  his 
own  device,  for  which  he  prepared  drawings  and  specifications,  pre- 
paratory to  obtaining  a  patent,  but  did  not,  from  some  cause,  do  so.| 
The  cavity  was  a  simple  crescent-shaped  depression  in  the  palatine 
portion  of  the  plate. 

About  1845,§  Dr.  J.  A.  Cleaveland,  of  Ciiarleston,  S.  C,  con- 
structed a  cavity  plate,  by  first  fitting  an  ordinary  plain  plate,  and 
cutting  out  of  it  a  central  opening  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in 
(liameter,  inside  a  ring  formed  by  a  half-round  wire  which  had  been 
previously  soldered  to  the  })late.  A  second,  dished,  ])late,  somewhat 
wider  than  the  opening,  was  then  soldered  over  it;  thus  making  an 
inclosed  cavity  with  overlaj)ping  edges.  Tiie  rounded  wire  served  to 
stiffen  the  plate,  and  to  prevent  unpleasant  cluiting  or  irritation  of  the 
gums. 

In  February,  1848,  I^evi  Gilbert,  a  confecti(mer,  of  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  obtained  a  j)atent  for  "atmospheric  pressure  plates,"  in  which 
the  following  is  claimed:  "My  invention  is  the  application  of  at- 
mosi)heric  pressure  to  plates  used  in  dentistry :  the  plate  being 
single,  and  a  chamber  being  sunk  in  the  central  part  of  the  upper 


*  Dictionary  of  Dcntnl  Science,  p.  501. 

f  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  2d  Series,  vol.  ii.  p.  420. 

X  New  York  Dental  Recorder,  vol.  ii.  p.  77. 

§  Harris's  Dictionary  of  Dental  Science,  p.  501. 


MECHAXICAT>    DENTISTRY.  45 

surface  of  the  plate,  in  wliicli  a  vacuum  can  be  formed  by  tlie 
tongue."* 

Upon  the  publication  of  this  patent,  ]Mr.  Gilbert  was  met  by  the 
assertions  of  dentists  on  every  hand,  that  his  api)licati(m  had  been 
known  and  practiced  for  years  before.  Many  claimants  for  priority 
of  this  invention  made  themselves  known ;  and  he  was  soon  satisfied 
that  their  claims,  however  they  might  stand  in  relation  to  each  other, 
were  superior  ta  his.     He  eventually  abandoned  his  patent. 

Not  so  the  profession,  however;  who,  having  tested  the  improve- 
ment fully,  and  found  it  worthy,  almost  unanimously  adopted  it. 
A  committee  appointed  by  the  Pennsylvania  Society  of  Dental  Sur- 
geons to  investigate  the  merits  of  the  "Gilbert  plate,"  Avhile  report- 
ing evasively  on  the  question  of  priority  of  invention,  said,  in  regard 
to  its  jjractical  value,  "In  a  great  number  of  cases  it  has  been  most 
markedly  successful,  and  in  cases,  too,  where  springs  had  been  unsuc- 
cessfully applied  by  different  operators,  and  they  believe  also  that  this 
happy  result  has  been  from  the  use  of  the  'Central  Cavity  Plate'." 
The  report  concluded  with  a  recommendation  "that  a  certificate  of 
approval  of  the  Central"  Cavity  Plate  should  be  awarded  to  ]Mr. 
Gilbert  by  the  Society."!  Which  action  and  recommendation  were 
ratified. 

The  construction  of  cavity  plates  was  the  first  ap})lication  of  the 
veritable  principles  of  atmospheric  pressure  in  dentistry.  That  it 
was  a  great  improvement  on  the  old  plan  is  certain;  and  it  has 
become  an  integral  part  of  mechanical  dentistry. 

Many  inventions,  designed  to  improve  the  first  principle  of  a  plain 
cavity,  have  been  presented.  INIost  of  them,  from  complexity  or 
other  cause,  have  not  met  with  the  general  approval  of  the  profes.- 
sion.  A  half-round  projection  surrounding  the  cavity  on  its  inner 
edge  and  jutting  out  from  the  surface,  is,  perhaps,  the  most  impor- 
tant of  these,  serving,  as  it  does,  by  sinking  into  the  gum  and 
membrane,  to  make  the  vacuum  in  the  chamber  more  perfect.  The 
valve  plate,  invented  by  Dr.  W.  H.  Dwindle,  of  New  York,  is  a 
very  beautiful  and  scientific  adaptation  of  the  principle;  but,  being 
somewhat  complex,  is  not  generally  used.  The  lateral  cavity  plate 
of  Dr.  J.  F.  B.  Flagg,  invented  in  1849,  is  of  more  practical  impor- 
tance. This  improvement  removes  the  chamber  from  the  palatine 
arch  to  the  surfaces  of  the  alveolar  ridge  immediately  posterior  to 

*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  2d  Series,  vol.  ii.  p.  421. 

f  Minutes  of  the  Transactions  of  the  Pennsylvania  Society  of  Dental  Surgeons. 


46  HISTORY   OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

the  molar  teotli.  Tims  the  projection  of  the  rhaml)er  in  the  roof  of 
the  mouth  is  removed,  and  partial  dentures  may  be  inserted  without 
covering  the  palatal  surface  Avith- metal. 

The  "engraved  suction  plate"  of  Dr.  Harnett,  of  New  York, 
though  highly  extolled  by  Robinson,*  never  obtained  any  extended 
use,  and  may  be  mentioned  as  one  of  the  curiosities  of  dentistry. 
The  process  was  simply,  engraving  any  ornamental  design  on  the 
inner  surface  of  the  plate;  thus  forming  a  number  of  minute  con- 
voluted air-chambers. 

The  cavity  plate  is  now  made  in  all  the  various  plate  materials. 
Years  of  constant  use  have  proved  its  value;  and  it  forms  one  of  the 
greatest  advances  in  prosthetic  dentistry. 

THE    LABORATORY. 

Under  tliis  head  Avill  be  treated  the  manufacture  of  artificial  den- 
tures, including  notices  of  the  materials  not  heretofore  mentioned, 
processes,  mechanical  devices  and  instruments,  and  the  various  appa- 
ratus of  the  workshop.  The  limits  of  this  work  precluding  the 
possibility  of  thorough  treatment  of  these  subjects,  only  the  most 
important  points  will  be  presented. 

Impressions. — For  many  years,  wax  was  the  only  material  known 
for  the  process  of  obtaining  an  impression  or  matrix  of  those  parts 
of  the  moutli  intended  to  be  covered  by  artificial  dentures,  the  first 
step  to  be  taken  in  the  construction  of  the  latter.  The  common  pro- 
duct of  the  bee  was  the  variety  used,  in  its  natural  state  and  with- 
out other  refining  than  sufficed  to  remove  any  physical  impurities 
w]ii(  li  it  might  contain.  The  process  was  simple,  and  consisted  in 
warming  a  sufficient  quantity,  with  a  spirit  lamp  or  in  hot  water,  and 
applying  it  to  the  parts;  making  such  digital  pressure  on,  and  work- 
ing of,  the  material  as  should  insure  its  exact  adaptation  to  the  sinu- 
osities of  the  surface  covered  by  it,  and  then  cooling  and  carefully 
removing  it. 

At  first  the  wax  was  held,  during  application,  directly  by  the 
fingers;  but  various  disadvantages  experienced  by  this  mode  led  to 
the  introduction  of  wax-holders.  As  these  instruments  are  in  use  at 
present,  with  but  little,  if  any,  modification  of  their  form  and  mate- 
rial from  those  first  used,  a  further  description  will  not  be  necessary. 

The  use  of  plaster  of  Paris  fVn'  impressions  taken  from  the  mouth 
was  introduced  about  1844-5.     Who  first  used  it  for  this  j)urpose  it 

*  Robinson  on  the  Teeth,  London,  184G. 


MECHANICAL    DENTISTRY.  47 

is  now  impossible  to  say;  but  the  credit  of  priority  has  been  about 
equally  divided  between  Drs.  Westoot't,  Dwinelle,  and  Dunning. 
The  question  of  its  introduction  at  one  time  occasioned  much  more 
discussion  than  would  appear  at  d\l  necessary  from  the  apparent  obvi- 
ousness of  the  process. 

Gutta-percha. — Almost  the  first  use  of  this  material,  upon  its  in- 
troduction to  the  profession  in  1848,  was  for  taking  impressions.  It 
was  "  thoroughly  soaked  in  boiling  water,  then  kneaded  and  moulded 
in  the  same  way  as  wax  to  fit  the  case,  .  .  .  and  immediately  placed 
in  the  mouth  and  firmly  pressed  to  its  place."*  Its  quick  and  perfect 
solidification,  and  the  consequent  freedom  from  danger  of  disarranging 
the  mould  in  withdrawal,  commended  its  use ;  and,  although  it  never 
endangered  the  permanent  use  of  i)laster,  it  held  a  prominent  place 
among  materials  for  impressions.  It  is  now,  however,  little  used  for 
this  purpose. 

Of  late,  various  compositions  have  been  invented,  designed  to  take 
the  place  of  wax  and  plaster.  Each  of  these  has  its  merits  and  de- 
merits, and  they  have  very  greatly  lessened  the  use  of  wax.  Plaster, 
however,  with  its  many  and  almost  unsurpassable  advantages,  will 
probably,  at  least  for  a  long  time  to  come,  constitute  the  main  reliance 
of  this  branch  of  the  art. 

Casts  and  Dies. — The  use  of  plaster  in  forming  models  from  im- 
pressions previously  taken  extends  back  out  of  record,  and  has  never, 
for  this  purpose,  had  any  competitor  of  sufficient  importance  or  value 
to  demand  notice.  For  a  long  time  fitting  to  plaster  casts  constituted 
the  only  method  of  adapting  artificial  dentures,  tlie  casts  being  painted 
with  moist  color,  and  thus  marking  their  prominences  on  the  plate 
material  as  it  was  repeatedly  applied  to  them.  Even  after  the  intro- 
duction of  metal  plates,  plaster  was  still  used  as  the  ciust,  the  plate 
not  being  then  swaged  or  "struck  up,"  but  adapted  by  bending  with 
proper  forceps  or  pliers,  and  the  hammer  and  punches. 

Who  introduced  metallic  models  and  counters  is  not  known.  The 
material  first  used  for  them,  however,  was  brass  or  copper,  xifter- 
ward,  more  easily  fusible  metals  were  employed,  as  lead,  tin,  zinc, 
type-metal,  britannia,  Babbitt's,  D'Arcet's,  and  other  compositions,  or 
a  combination  of  two  or  more  of  these.  The  ingenuity  of  prosthetic 
dentistry  has  never  ceased  being  exercised  with  the  problem  of  the 
production  of  a  material  for  casts  and  dies  which  shall  j)osscss  all  the 
desired  attributes  of  strength,  non-contraction,  or  expansion,  adapta- 

*  Amorican  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  1st  Scries,  vol.  viii.  p.  208. 


48  HISTORY   OF   A^^IERICAX   DENTISTRY. 

bilitv  in  castin<r,  and  facility  of  manipulation.  Various  combina- 
tions of  metals,  in  innumerable  ratios  of  proportion,  have  been 
invented  to  secure  these  ends.  Electricity  has  been  called  to  our  aid, 
in  producing  directly  upon  the  plaster  a  galvanic  deposit  which  should 
admit  of  the  pouring  of  fused  metal  upon  it  without  destroying  the 
plaster,  thus  abrogating  the  employment  of  moulding  sand.  TliLs 
process  was  the  invention  of  Dr.  T.  H.  Burras,  of  New  York,  in 
I860.*  Dr.  W.  H.  Elliot,  of  Montreal,  mixed  his  moulds  with 
plaster  and  sand,  and  poured  the  metal  (zinc)  directly  upon  them. 
Di[)i)ing  the  baked  plaster  cast  into  melted  lead  for  the  mould  is  also 
practiced,  a  mixture  of  zinc  and  tin  being  in  turn  poured  into  the 
lead  to  obtain  the  male  die. 

Zinc  and  tin  for  the  cast,  and  lead  or  tin  for  the  matrix,  are,  per- 
haps, more  generally  used  at  present  than  other  formulas,  though  the 
materials  and  proportions  are  even  more  varied  now  than  formerly. 

A  very  considerable  advance  in  luetallic  casting  has  been  the  intro- 
duction of  Dr.  George  E.  Hawes's  (New  York)  sectional  moulding 
flask.  This  obviates  all  danger  of  "  dragging"  (breaking  do^vn  the 
sand)  in  removing  the  casting  from  the  mould.t 

The  adjustment  of  artificial  teeth  in  the  mouth,  so  that  a  correct 
apposition  with  the  remaining  natural  teeth  should  be  obtained,  was 
little  thought  of  in  the  earlier  days  of  dentistry ;  but  the  growth  of 
the  art  rendered  it  at  length  a  desideratum,  and  finally  a  necessity. 
The  first  attempts  at  producing  this  condition  were  through  the 
medium  of  aiifaf/oniziug  caxt^i  of  the  opposite  denture.  These  long 
served  excellently  for  the  purpose,  but  were  finally  aided  by  mechani- 
cal contrivances  called  articulators,  Nvhich  latter  have  been  so  far  and 
perfectly  developed  as  to  leave  little  to  be  desired  in  this  direction. 
The  kinds  and  models  of  articulators  arc  so  various,  and  their  grada- 
tions of  comparative  value  so  imperceptible,  that  none  can  be  particu- 
hu'ly  noticed. 

llie  Application  of  Heat  in  various  forms  has  always  constituted 
one  of  the  principal  features  of  prosthetic  dentistry.  In  the  various 
stages  of  the  manufacture  of  porcelain  teeth  a  suitable  furnace  or 
mufile  wa.s  needed.  As,  however,  such  teeth  are  now  seldom  made 
in  2)rivate  laboratories,  being  by  most  dentists  procured  from  special 
manufacturers,  it  is  not  deemed  necessary  to  treat  further  of  such 
appliances. 

*  Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  ii.  p.  lO'). 

t  New  York  Dental  Recorder,  vol.  iv.  p.  285. 


MECHANICAL   DENTISTRY.  49 

The  blow-pipe  cannot  be  thus  disregarded.  This  instrument  is, 
perhaps,  the  most  important  of  any  employed  in  dental  prosthesis,  and 
corresponding  diligence  has  been  used  in  its  improvement.  From 
the  ordinary  hollow  metal  tube  and  spirit-lamp  to  the  complicated 
and  scientific  "  oxyhydrogen"  is  a  long  stride ;  yet  it  has  been  made 
in  dentistry,  and  principally  within  the  twenty  years  last  past. 

Dr.  Hull,  of  Matteawan,  constructed  perhaps  the  most  important 
improvement  in  the  common,  straight  mouth-pipe.  This  was  the 
introduction  of  a  cylindrical  enlargement  of  the  barrel  between  the 
mouth-end  and  the  point,  which  served  to  intercept  and  condense  the 
moisture  from  the  lungs. 

Drs.  Hook  and  Jahial  Parmly  were  among  the  first  in  the  intro- 
duction of  alcoholic  self-acting  blow-pipes.  The  invention  of  the 
former  consisted  in  a  hollow  globe  of  metal  composed  of  two  hemi- 
spheres firmly  fastened  together,  which  being  partly  filled  with  al(;ohol, 
and  supported  over  the  flame  of  a  spirit-lamp,  vapor  was  formed  from 
the  alcohol  within  the  globe,  which,  escaping  through  a  small  curved 
pipe  pointing  at  the  flame  of  the  lamp  beneath,  was  there  ignited  and 
forced  upon  the  work.  The  instrument  of  the  latter  was  on  the  same 
general  principle,  but  so  arranged  as  to  more  nearly  obviate  the  danger 
of  explosion  to  which  the  former  was  liable.*  Various  other  forms 
of  the  alcoholic  blow-pipe  have  been  used  to  a  greater  or  less  extent. 

Those  varieties  of  this  instrument,  the  motive  power  of  which  is 
hydraulic,  have  been  and  are  somewhat  extensively  in  use;  as  is 
also  the  case  with  foot-power  apparatus  of  this  kind.  The  latter, 
combining  many  excellencies  with  but  few  and  moderate  defects,  is, 
perhaps,  more  generally  employed  than  any  other  variety.  There 
are  many  kinds,  each  presenting  some  peculiar  advantage. 

AVith  the  coming  of  vulcanite,  a  new  variety  of  apparatus  was 
introduced  into  the  laboratory.  This  is  the  vulcanizer,  of  which 
there  are  several  kinds.  The  first  in  use,  comparatively  rnde  and 
clumsy  in  construction,  and  very  liable,  from  faulty  manufacture,  to 
explosion,  have  been  replaced  by  others  very  much  superior  in  these 
particulars.  None  can  be  singled  out  as  best,  or  most  used.  A  kin- 
dred instrument  is  that  for  the  management  of  celluloid.  Both  these 
apparatus  are  still  in  process  of  improvement. 

Next  to  the  blow-pipe,  if  not,  indeed,  quite  its  equal  in  importance 
in  the  laboratory,  is  the  lathe.  This  instrument  was,  on  its  intro- 
duction, occupied  almost  solely  in  grinding  porcelain  work ;  but,  in 

*  Dictionary  of  Dental  ?cicn?e,  p.  90. 
6 


50  HISTOIIY   OF   AMERICAN   DENTISTRY. 

modern  dental  laboratorias,  the  complete  turning-lathe  now  has  a 
place. 

Althoufjh  there  is  no  record  of  the  introduction  of  lathes  or  grind- 
ing aj)paratus  in  mechanical  dentistry,  it  is  apparent  that  they  have 
been  long  in  use ;  for  the  labor  of  grinding  porcelain  teeth  or  cutting 
ivory,  especially  the  former,  is  severe,  and  the  attention  of  the  den- 
tist must  have  been  early  directed  to  liglitening  it.  In  the  younger 
days  of  American  dentistry,  hand-wheels  or  grindstones  were  much 
in  vogue,  especially  in  the  practice  of  itinerant  dentists ;  but  foot- 
power  \'ery  soon  came  to  be  used. 

The  earliest  pedal  lathes  were  of  very  rude  construction,  in  common 
with  most  of  the  machinery  of  the  time.  Improvements,  ho^vever, 
were  quickly  made,  and  we  lind  in  general  use  to-day  the  ''  improved 
lathe"  of  Mr.  J.  D.  Chevalier,  introduced  about  1855.  In  fact,  since 
that  time,  almost  all  the  advances  have  tended  to  modifications  of  the 
ordinary  foot-lathe  of  the  mechanic.  One  innovation,  however,  is 
the  production  of  exactly  and  elegantly-made  apparatus  for  use  in  the 
operating  room. 

The  old  grindstone  was  first  rei)laced  by  the  emery  wheel,  formed 
by  spreading  melted  glue  on  a  wooden  wheel,  and  dusting  powdered 
emery  thereon,  which  was  a  common  device  in  ordinary  mechanics. 
This,  in  turn,  made  way  for  the  wheel  or  disk  of  emery  and  shellac ; 
which  latter  are  now  thrown  aside  in  favor  of  the  newer  and  better 
^'corundum  wheel." 


OPERATIVE  DEKTISTRY. 


SIMPLE    METALLIC    FILLINGS. 

It  is  impossible  to  discover  vvlien,  where,  or  by  whom  tlie  o])era- 
tion  of  filling  teeth  was  introduced.  It  has  been  claimed  for  Celsiis 
(100  B.C.),  but  the  claim  cannot,  we  think,  be  substantiated.  The 
only  reference  to  the  operation  in  question  to  be  found  in  the  works 
of  that  writer  is,  his  recommendation  to  stuff  with  lead  decayed  and 
frail  teeth  which  are  to  be  extracted,  in  order  that  they  may  not  break 
tinder  the  for'ceps.* 

Up  to  the  year  1800,  the  filling  of  teeth  was  an  operation  prac- 
ticed only  by  the  best  dentists.  It  is  probable  that  it  attained  a 
prominent  position  in  oj^erative  dentistry  sooner  in  this  country  than 
in  others;  for,  in  the  works  of  most  foreign  (and  particularly  French) 
dentists,  even  so  late  as  1825,  we  find  comparatively  little  attention 
paid  to  this  branch,  and  not  much  knowledge  or  method  evinced  in 
its  treatment,  when  compared  with  the  best  practice  of  the  time  in 
our  own  country.  Koecker,  writing  in  1826,  says,  "The  slight 
scientific  attention  that  has  been  paid  to  this  subject,  is  particularly 
proved  by  the  su})crficial  manner  in  which  English,  as  well  as  foreign 
writers,  have  treated  of  it  in  their  works."t 

The  earliest  recorded  material  for  filling  is 

Lead. — This  metal  was  used  in  the  form  of  leaf.  A  piece  being 
torn  off,  was  rolled  between  the  fingers  into  a  ball  or  pellet  suffici- 
ently large  to  more  than  fill  the  cavity  after  packing,  and  was  then 
forced  to  its  place  by  one  or  two  straight  instruments,  dressed  off  and 
polished  with  a  burnisher.^ 

This  metal,  soft  and  ductile,  and  easily  compressible,  long  formed 
the    principal   filling    material.§     The    French    word    for  "filling" 

*  Celsiis,  De  re  Medica,  lib.  7,  cap.  3,  sec.  5.         f  Koccker,  loc.  cit.,  p.  386. 

X  Desirabodc,  loc.  cit.,  p.  282.  ^  Ibid.,  p.  279. 

51 


52  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

{plomhacje,  literally  leading)  is  derived  from  its  employment.  It 
was  used  almost  entirely  in  the  manner  described.  Connoisseurs  in 
the  artifle  preferred  that  variety  denominated  "tea-lead,"  because  in 
it  was  packed  the  tea  received  from  China.  It  came  with  j)aper 
pasted  on  one  side,  which  was  readily  removed  by  washing^  in  water, 
leavinfT  the  lead  in  a  thin  sheet.* 

Gold. — Harris  saysf  that  gold  was  used  as  a  filling  in  the  early 
part  of  the  18th  century;  but  w^e  have  not  been  able  to  discover  any 
mention  of  it  prior  to  that  made  by  Fauchard,  in  the  third  edition  of 
his  work,  1780,  book  ii.  page  68.  It  is  possible  that  it  was  employed 
previous  to  the  last-mentioned  date,  though  certainly  not  to  any  great 
extent;  for  Harris  notes  the  fact|  that  it  was  not  until  the  year  1800 
that  its  use  "  became  common  among  dentists."  Although  Dr.  Harris 
is  undoubtedly  correct  in  this  statement  from  one  stand-point,  yet  he 
is,  as  undoubtedly,  not  so  from  another.  Among  those  of  the  better 
class  of  dentists  w^ho,  residing  in  large  and  seaboard  cities,  had  extra 
facilities  for  procuring  gold,  it  w^as  early  employed;  but  the  greater 
number  of  jiractitioners  did  not  use  it  ordinarily  until  long  after  the 
date  mentioned  by  him.  Dr.  Eleazar  Parmly§  states  that  the  first 
gold  filling  he  ever  saw  was  in  1815,  and  this  was  put  in  by  Waitc 
of  London ;  and  its  introduction  into  America  as  a  filling  is  ascribed 
by  Family  to  Robert  Woofendale,  who  returned  to  New  York  from 
England  in  179o.|| 

Gold  was  first  used  in  leaf,  as  prepared  by  the  gold-beaters ;  but, 
this  being  very  thin,  it  w'as  soon  supplanted  by  rolled  gold.  For  a 
long  time  after  its  introduction  as  a  material  for  filling  there  was  no 
manufacture  of  the  metal  expressly  for  dental  purposes.  A  dentist 
in  need  of  gold  for  filling  procured  gold  coins,  and  had  them  rolled 
by  the  gold-beater  into  such  thickness  as  suited  his  purpose.^  From 
ten  to  twenty  grains  was  the  ordinary  thickness  usal.  This  gold,  of 
course,  was  as  non-adhesive  as  tin.  The  Brazilian  Johannes  (Portu- 
guese) was  the  coin  preferred,  it  being  the  purest  of  any  gold  money 
then  made. 

About  the  year  1812-13,  Marcus  Bull  began  the  gold-beating 
business  in  Hartford,  Connecticut.     Here  Charles  Abbey  became  his 

*  Aniorican  Journiil  of  Dental  Science,   1st  Scries,  vol.  iii.  p.  239. 
f  Dictionary  of  Dental  Science,  p.  32G.  %  Ibid. 

§  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  1st  Series,  vol    iii.  p.  2. 
II  IntrodiKtory  Lecture,  hy  J.  Brockway,  Sr.,  before  the  Third  District  Dental 
Society,  Albany,  N.  Y.,  1869,  pamphlet. 

T[  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  1st  Series,  vol.  iii.  p.  2. 


OPERATIVE   DENTISTRY.  53 

apprentice.  While  lierc,  dentists  would,  to  use  the  language  of  Mr. 
Abbey,  "  borroAV  his  '  rolls'  to  roll  out  their  '  old  Joes' "  (Johannes). 
Mr.  Bull,  arriving  at  somewhat  of  a  knowledge  of  dental  wants, 
gradually  brought  these  customers  to  use  his  partially  beaten  gold- 
leaf,  taking  their  Johannes  in  exchange.  In  1816,  Mr.  Bull  moved 
his  establishment  to  Philadelphia,  where,  in  1835,  Abbey  became  his 
partner,  and,  upon  the  retirement  of  Bull,  in  1839,  took  the  business 
himself.  The  house  relinquished  the  gold-leaf  department  in  1835, 
making  dental  foil  its  sole  specialty.  This  was  the  first  house  in  tlie 
country  to  be  specially  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  denttd  gold  foil, 
and  has,  therefore,  been  thus  mentioned. 

The  first  method  employed  in  filling  with  gold  was  by  pellets,  as 
has  been  described  in  treating  of  lead.  Sometimes  the  pellet,  after 
its  introduction,  was  pierced  centrally  with  a  sharp  instrument,  and 
a  cone-shaped  roll  of  gold  forced  into  the  consequent  aperture,  thus 
wedging  laterally.*  Some  dentists  allowed  the  filling  to  finally  ex- 
tend beyond  the  level  of  surface  of  the  adjoining  tooth  substance, 
that  it  might  be  further  consolidated  by  mastication.f 

This  method,  with  the  thick  gold  then  used,  would  not  produce 
even  a  good  filling,  except  by  the  application  of  great  force,  to  which 
there  were  many  obvious  objections.  The  foil  then  came  to  be  made 
thinner,  until  as  low  as  tioo  grains  to  the  leaf  was  used  ;  but  from  four 
to  six  grains  was  the  average  Aveight  of  leaf. 

Upon  the  employment  of  light  gold,  the  form  of  application  became 
changed.  A  sheet  was  rolled  or  twisted  into  a  'rope,'  which  was 
packed  by  forcing  it  into  the  cavity  in  folds.  In  smaller  cavities 
whi('h  would  not  admit  a  rope,  the  half  or  third  of  a  sheet  was  folded 
over  a  watch-spring  or  light  strip  of  steel,  and  introduced  in  the  same 
way  as  the  rope. 

About  the  time  from  1840  to  1845,  isolated  members  of  tlie  pro- 
fession began  to  co'd  ribbons  of  gold  upon  a  winder,  thus  forming 
cylinders.  These  cylinders,  however.  Mere  still  inserted  upon  the 
principle  of  the  old-time  pellet,  being  wound  so  tightly  as  to  be  little 
compressible,  and  to  a  size  just  sufficient  to  enter  the  cavity,  into  which 
they  were  forced,  first  by  small  and  then  by  larger  instruments,  the 
coils  being  of  sufficient  depth  to  extend  above  the  margin.^  In 
order  to  secure  sufficient  force  for  the  final  consolidation.  Dr.  Cush- 
man,  of  Georgia,  devised  a  somewhat  curious  instrument.     This  was 

*  Dcsirabode,  loc.  cit.,  p.  282.  t  W^^- 

X  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science.  2(1  Series,  vol.  viii.  p.  3,  ci  seq. 


54  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

a  simple  straight  plugger  in  a  huiulle,  bent  near  the  point  at  a  right 
angle,  and  having  melted  around  the  elbow  there  formed  a  mass  of 
lead  in  a  flat-globular  sliajie,  below  which  the  plugger-i)oint  projected. 
The  point  being  j)laced  on  the  surface  of  a  crown-filling,  final  and 
extreme  condensation  was  effected  by  the  patient  biting  forcibly  on 
the  leaden  ball.*  The  principles  of  cylinder-filling,  as  at  present 
practiced,  appear  not  to  have  been  perfectly  understood  at  that  time. 
However,  it  was  not  long  before  cylinder  filling,  as  such,  came  to 
be  employed.  It  is  probable  that  the  method  was  some  time  in  use, 
by  various  operators,  before  it  became,  to  any  great  extent,  publicly 
known.  Blocks,  as  well  as  cylinders,  were  thus  used,  the  variation 
being  more  in  name  than  in  reality ;  for  the  only  difference  between 
them  was  that  the  former  were  wound  on  flat  instruments,  the  latter 
on  round  or  angular  ones.f 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  when  comparing  the  cylinders  or  blocks 
of  the  j)ast  with  those  of  the  present,  that  the  fbrmer  were  tightly 
wound,  and  left  only  slightly  compressible,  before  use. 

About  1851,  the  method  of  crimping  foil  was  introduced  in  France,^ 
and  so(m  afterward  wiis  used  in  this  country,  but  never  to  any  very 
great  extent. 

At  this  period  (1851)  the  gross  annual  amount  of  gold  foil  used  in 
the  United  States  was  about  six  thousand  six  hundred  ounces,  sold  at 
an  average  price  of  thirty  dollars  jier  ounce,  or  a  total  amount  of 
one  hundred  and  ninety-eight  thousand  dollars.§  These  figures  may 
be  considered  as  tolerably  correct,  although  obtained  from  raanufac^- 
turers'  statistics ;  for  the  practice  of  rolling  or  preparing  their  own  foil 
was,  at  that  date,  almost  entirely  discontinued  by  dentists,  who  had 
gradually  come  to  depend  upon  special  fabricators  for  their  supply. 

In  October,  1840,  Dr.  C.  T.  Jackson,  of  Boston,  had  a  tooth  filled 
with 

Sponge  gold,  of  the  manufacture  of  which  he  had  previously  dis- 
covered the  process.ll  This  was  the  first  use  of  this  form  of  gold  for 
the  purpose  named.  It  attracted,  however,  very  little  attention  from 
the  i)rofes^ion  until  1853,  "when  Mr.  A.  J.  Watt,  of  Utica,  New  York, 
and  Mr.  .Tosei)h  Barling,  Maidstone,  Kent,  England,  a})peared  (with 
it)  in  the  field  almost  at  the  same  time.     Mr.  Barling  does  not  appear 

*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  2d  Series,  vol.  viii.  p.  8. 

t  Ibid  ,  p.  7. 

X  New  York  Dental  Kccorder,  vol.  vi.  p.  196. 

§  Americiin  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  2d  Series,  vol.  i.  p.  228. 

J{\  Silliman's  Journal,  2d  Series,  vol.  vi.  p.  187. 


OPERATIVE    DENTISTRY.  55 

to  have  patented  his  preparation,"  *  but  Mr.  Watt  did ;  not  claiming 
the  invention  of  the  article,  but  its  application  to  dental  purposes. 

This  preparation  of  gold  was  immediately  heralded  far  and  wide 
as  the  ne  plus  ultra  in  filling  materials;  but  its  first  manufacture 
seems  not  to  have  sustained  the  claims  made  in  its  behalf;  for  it  was 
so  easily  reduced  to  powder  as  to  almost  preclude  its  use  in  the  upper 
jaw,  and  even  in  the  lower  a  sjioon  would  sometimes  have  been  a  proper 
instrument  for  its  introduction  into  the  cavity.  But  the  patentee 
quickly  improved  his  processes ;  and  soon  produced  an  article  which 
was  open  to  few  objections. 

And  now  "  sponge,"  "  crystal,"  or  "  crystalline"  gold  (as  it  was 
variously  termed),  began  to  be  quite  extensively  used ;  though  its 
employers,  it  appears,  were  still  very  much  in  the  dark  as  to  its  real 
nature  or  mode  of  consolidation.  Many  and  extremely  various  were 
the  tests  applied  to  it ;  which,  being  largely  descanted  on,  in  publica- 
tions and  society  meetings,  led  one  humorous  gentleman  to  remark 
that  "  he  would  suggest,  the  addition  to  it  of  cod-liver  oil,"  f  as  a 
final  test ;  for  the  purpose,  it  is  supposed,  of  lubricating  the  crystals 
and  thus  facilitating  their  interlocking ! 

However,  the  approval  of  such  men  as  Dwindle  and  Arthur  was 
a  tolerably  certain  indication  that  much  real  value  to  the  dentist  ex- 
isted in  the  material ;  and  their  approbation  and  advocation,  as  well 
as  the  merits  of  the  article,  secured  its  very  general  use  at  the  time, 
and  it  is  still  largely  employed,  although  not  to  so  great  an  extent  as 
formerly.  Other  preparations  of  gold,  based  on  the  same  principle, 
have  since  come  into  the  field  in  competition  with  the  original  article 
of  Taft  &  Watt. 

One  of  the  greatest  advantages  claimed  for  crystal  gold  in  its  vari- 
ous forms  was,  its  capability  of  being  packed  in  moisture  or  in  the 
presence  of  almost  any  extraneous  substance.  It  was  said  to  have 
been  tested  by  working  it  in  water,  saliva,  and  even  flour,  without 
destroying  its  cohesive  properties  in  the  least,  or  preventing  its  forma- 
tion into  a  solid  plug  while  in  these  media.|  But  experience  in  other 
hands  seems  to  have  required  for  it  even  more  than  ordinary  care,  as 
well  in  securing  absence  of  moisture  as  in  packing  the  cavity  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  prevent  leaving  the  plug  porous.     It  is  probable  that 


*  Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  x.  p.  131. 

f  Transactions  of  the  American  Society  of  Dental   Surgeons,   Dental  News 
Letter,  vol.  ix.  p.  11. 

X  Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  x.  p.  136. 


56  IIISTOUY   OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

success  in  its  use  is  more  dependent  on  tlie  skill  and  experience  of  the 
operator  than  in  the  case  of  ordinary  foil. 

In  the  spring  of  1855,  Dr.  Arthur,  of  Baltimore,  advised  the 
profession  of  a  "  new  method  of  using  gold  foil."  *  At  the  time  of 
this  discover}',  he  was  experimenting  with  sponge  gold ;  with  which, 
although  he  had  ])roduced  excellent  results,  he  was  not  fully  satisfied. 
His  "new  method"  consisted  in  thoroughly  annealing  the  foil  over  a 
spirit  lamp  before  use ;  thereby  (although  the  fact,  in  its  full  signifi- 
cance, does  not  appear  to  have  been  fully  appreciated  by  him  at  the 
time),  developing  its  ^'udhcaive"  or  "coheHur"  property.f  Nor  does 
he  appear  to  have  entirely  comprehended  the  great  prospective  value 
of  his  discovery ;  for  he  says, — "  I  have  no  idea  that  gold  will  be 
used  generally  in  the  manner  I  now  recommend."  ;J;  But  he  shows 
a  correct  knowledge  of  the  then  conservatism  of  mankind  in  general, 
and  the  profession  which  he  addressed  in  particular,  when  he  con- 
tinues,— "  It  is  exceedingly  ditlicult  to  induce  men  to  change  a  course 
which  they  have  successfully  pursued  for  years,  and  the  difficulties  of 
which  they  have  learned  to  encounter  and  overcome,  for  any  new 
thing."  §  Plis  confidence  in  the  process  was  extreme,  and,  as  has 
since  been  proved,  well  founded.  "  I  confidently  say  to  every  ope- 
rator in  the  profession,  that  if  fairly  tried  it  will  afford  advantages 
in  the  use  of  gold  foil  of  which  few  have  dreamed."  || 

Immediately  upon  the  publication  of  this  process  by  Dr.  Arthur, 
it  was  declared  by  numerous  members  of  the  profession  that  in  it 
nothing  new  had  been  told  them ;  that  gold  foil  had  been  long  used 
in  this  way.  Indeed,  Dr.  A.  Westcott  claimed  to  have  accidentally 
discovered,  in  1840,  and  made  use,  since  then,  of  this  property  of 
gold.^  It  will  now  be  admitted  that  such  was  very  probably  the 
case.  The  fact  is,  that  the  greatest  difficulty  encountered  by  manu- 
facturers in  the  preparation  of  foil  was  this  very  stickiness,  as  they 

*  Dental  News  Letter,  vol.  viii.  p.  129. 

t  These  words,  althous^h  not  properly  fjnonymous,  have  been  used  very  indis- 
criminutely  by  the  profession  in  relation  to  the  peculiar  action  of  annealed  gold. 
"  The  term  adhesion,  in  physics,  has  been  applied  to  the  force  by  which  bodies  of 
different  kinds  adhere  when  united;  cohesion,  to  the  force  which  unites  the  par- 
ticles of  homogeneous  bodies." — Brande.  In  this  exact  definition,  by  the  eminent 
physicist  named,  particular  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  differences  expressed 
1)}'  the  i>hrases  "  bodies  of  different  kinds"  and  "homogeneous  bodies,"  and  also 
"when  united"  and  "which  unites."  The  first  evidently  refer  to  acZAe?-e«ce  ar^i- 
ficiallr/  produced ;  the  second  to  a  natural  or  self -uniting  force. 

X  Di'utal  News  Letter,  vol.  viii.  p.  132. 

'i  Ibid.  jl  Ibid. 

\  Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  xii.  p.  bl. 


i 


OPERATIVE   DENTISTRY.  57 

called  it.  Their  constant  endeavor  was  to  prevent  issuing  such  gold 
to  the  profession ;  but  it  often  got  out,  despite  their  care.  It  is,  there- 
fore, probable  that  sticky  foil  was  frequently  used  before  Dr.  Arthur 
published  his  method ;  though  it  is  also  probable  that  most  of  those 
who  had  used  it  were  unaware  of  its  value  or  special  character,  and, 
in  many  cases,  supposed  they  were  employing  an  inferior  and  unde- 
sirable article. 

This  innovation  again  changed,  in  great  measure,  the  methods  of 
using  gold.  Ropes  were  rolled  by  Dr.  Arthur  veiy  loosely,*  instead 
of  tight,  as  before ;  and  cylinders  of  non-cohesive,  as  well  as  of  co- 
hesive foil,  soon  came  to  be  thus  rolled.  An  obstacle  to  the  use  of 
the  cohesive  variety  was  found  in  the  difficulty  experienced  in  con- 
fining the  first  introduced  pieces  so  that  they  might  be  sufficiently 
immovable  to  build  upon  ;  but  this  was  immediately  removed  by  the 
use  of  retaining  pits,  drilled  in  the  tooth-substance ;  a  process  first 
recommended,  in  shallow  cavities  and  with  non-cohesive  foil,  by  Dr. 
A.  S.  Talbert,t  and  in  relation  to  cohesive  gold  by  Dr.  Louis  Jack.| 
A  great  change  now  introduced,  also,  was  the  use  of  deeply-serrated 
plugging  points. § 

The  new  form  of  gold  soon  became  immensely  popular.  The 
manufacturers  no  longer  found  a  difficulty  in  disposing  of  their 
sticky  foil,  for  it  was  eagerly  sought;  and  they  immediately  made 
and  sold  large  quantities  of  this  variety.  Reasoning  on  correct  prin- 
ciples as  to  questions  of  priority,  the  Western  Dentid  Society,  at  their 
meeting  held  in  St.  Louis,  May  22d,  1857,  passed  the  following  reso- 
lution :||  ^^  Resolved,  That  to  Dr.  Arthur,  and  him  alone,  the  dental 
profession  is  under  obligation,  for  his  liberality  in  laying  before  the 
profession  the  principle  of  using  and  welding  together  annealed  gold, 
by  the  use  of  serrated  pointed  instruments,  and  that  this  Society  de- 
sire to  express  their  thanks  to  him  for  this,  one  of  the  real  improve- 
ments in  the  mode  of  operating." 

With  crystal  gold  a  new  era  had  opened  to  the  profession,  in  the 
restoring  with  gold  of  broken  and  lost  portions  of,  and  occasionally 
even  whole  crowns  of  teeth.  This  process  was  carried  still  farther 
with  cohesive  foil ;  and  restored  crowns  came  to  be  almos^  common. 


*  Dental  News  Letter,  vol.  ix.  p.  234. 
t  Ibid.,  vol.  X.  p.  231. 
i  Ibid.,  vol.  ix.  p.  234. 

I  Ibid.,  vol.  viii.  p.  139,  and  vol.  ix.  p.  229. 

II  Ibid.,  vol.  X.  p.  282. 


58  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

Tlifii,  also,  occurred  the  initiation  of  "  contour  fillings,"  since  carried 
to  the  perfection  which  is  now  apparent.  Operations  before  almost 
unthoui^ht  of  were  now  commonly  performed ;  and,  in  short,  opera- 
tive dentistry  took  a  great  stride  forward. 

But,  while  this  was  true,  and  in  spite  of  it,  experience  demonstrated 
the  fact  that  cohesive  foil  would  not  answer  in  all  operations.  The 
most  serious  defect  apparent  was  its  liability  to  "  clog,"  unless  used 
with  great  care ;  and  this  defect  operated  seriously  against  it,  in  many 
cases.  The  ultimatum  of  filling  materials  had  not  been  attained,^  as 
was  at  first  fondly  supposed.  Therefore,  cohesive  foil  finally  settled 
to  its  true  importance  in  dentistry ;  an  importance  none  the  less  be- 
cause the  form  is  not  universally  applicable. 

The  range  of  weight  of  leaf  of  gold  foil  has  been  very  extensive. 
From  the  first  form  of  rolled  "  old  Joes,"  weighing  ten  to  twenty 
grains,  it  dwindled  to  two  or  three ;  then,  rebounding,  went  higlier 
and  higher,  until  some  claimed  a])probation  for  using  four  hundred 
and  eighty  grains  to  the  leaf!  The  weight  now  most  used  is,  an 
average  of  about  four  to  six  grains ;  though  the  numbers  now  found 
in  almost  every  dentist's  drawer  will  cover  a  far  wider  range  than 
was  even  known  to  the  dentist  of  not  more  than  fifty  years  ago. 

Platinum. — This  metal  has  long  been  known  as  a  tooth-filling 
material ;  though  it  cannot  be  said  to  have  been  used  as  such, — at 
least  to  any  very  great  extent.  The  many  natural  advantages  pos- 
sessed by  it  for  filling  have  always  induced  experiments  with  it; 
which  have  had  the  general  sole  aim  of  increasing  its  physical  adapta- 
bility ;  since  it  is  considered  to  equal,  if  not  to  surpass  gold  in  most 
other  respects.  While  the  old  ppl let-process  was  in  vogue,  platinum 
wa.s  used  in  this  way ;  but  its  harshness  and  want  of  ductility  and 
plasticity  have  prevented  its  use  by  the  newer  methods  of  operating. 
xV  different  form,  however,  has  been  very  lately  introduced,  which 
promises  success.  In  it  the  platinum  foil,  made  thin,  is  covered  by 
a  layer  or  deposit  of  gold.  This  preparation  has  not  been  long 
enough  in  use  to  warrant  the  expression  of  a  final  opinion. 

Alloys  of  platinum  and  gold  have  also  been  latterly  introduced. 
Strictly,  this  form  comes  under  the  head  of  gold-filling  materials, 
the  platinum  being  used  merely  to  harden  the  foil  for  ])articular  pur- 
poses ;  but  as  it  is  the  most  prominent  manner  in  which  platinum 
has  been  em[)loyed  of  late,  it  is  mentioned  in  this  connection.  This 
form  constitutes  a  very  desirable  addition  to  "  finishing  foils." 

Silver  was  once  used  to  a  very  considerable  extent,  by  the  pellet 
method.     It  was  found,  however,  to  oxydize  in  the  mouth,  and 


OPERATIVE    DENTISTRY.  59 

possessed  also  the  physical  disadvantages  of  stiffness  and  want  of 
ductility.     It  is  no  longer  employed  as  a  filling  material. 

Tin. — Of  the  simple  metallic  fillings,  excepting  lead  and  gold,  tin 
has  been  the  most  extensively  used.  It  was  not  generally  employed 
until  about  1830;  although  isolated  members  of  the  profession  put 
in  tin  fillings  as  early  as  1822.*  It  gi'cw  in  favor,  especially  for 
large  cavities  in  molars  and  for  the  cheaper  class  of  operations.  The 
time  and  labor  necessary  to  properly  fill  a  large  cavity  with  gold 
were  much  lessened  by  the  employment  of  tin  ;  for  it  was  softer  and 
more  pliable  than  even  lead,  and  did  not  harden  under  the  instru- 
ment like  gold.  It  certainly  oxydized,  giving  the  tooth  an  ugly, 
black  color,  and  was  therefore  generally  iLsed  only  in  the  back  teeth. 

It  also  wore  rapidly  away  under  mastication ;  but  could  be  then 
cheaply,  easily,  and  comparatively  quickly  replaced.  In  brief,  it 
possessed  several  negative  advantages  Avhich  were  opposed  by  few 
positive  disadvantages ;  and,  for  many  years,  was  very  extensively 
employed  by  the  best  dentists,  with  hardly  a  dissentient  voice. 

Biit  the  growing  influence  of  gold  at  length  made  itself  felt  in 
oj^position  to  the  humbler  metal.  The  introduction  of  various  plastic 
fillings,  too,  operated  against  it ;  and  its  employment  was  finally  very 
much  reduced  in  extent ;  although  it  has  never  been  entirely  rejected, 
but  is  even  now  considerably  used,  in  the  less  expensive  class  of  cases. 

PLASTIC    FILLINGS. 

The  difficulties  encountered  in  the  manipulation  of  fillings  of 
simple  metal  have  always  been  obstacles  to  their  successful  use ;  and, 
in  the  earlier  days  of  modern  dentistry,  operated  against  even  their 
general  employment.  The  ingenuity  of  the  inventive  minds  of  the 
profession  has  always  been  taxed  to  obviate  these  difficulties,  either 
by  changes  in  the  metals  or  processes,  or  by  the  introduction  of  some 
material  which  should  replace  the  one  and  render  the  other  less  bur- 
densome. In  the  latter  direction,  effi)rts  were  very  early  directed 
toward  plastic  fillings. 

The  first  of  these,  from  their  nature,  could  serve  only  a  temporary 
purpose ;  for  they  were  simple  ethereal  or  alcoholic  solutions  of  some 
t)f  the  gums,  as  mastic,  sandarac,  etc.f  By  the  best  early  dentists 
these  materials  were  decried,  and  various  were  the  malevolent  effects 
ascribed  to  them.     But  it  is  probable  that  many  of  these  pernicious 

*  New  York  Dental  Recorder,  vol.  iv.  p.  195. 
f  Robinson  on  the  Teeth,  p.  111. 


(JO  HISTORY   OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

consequences  either  existed  more  in  tlie  imaginations  of  the  dispar- 
agers than  in  sober  reality,  or  were  greatly  magnified.  The  dentists 
of  seventy-live  or  a  liundred  years  ago  were  very  positive  and  decided 
men ;  and  anything  wliicli  was  not,  in  their  view,  good,  could  not  be 
sufficiently  condemned  by  them. 

Teiro-iiidaUlc  Cement. — This  was  composed  of  a  mixture  of  sul- 
phate of  lime  and  oxide  of  iron.  The  "celebrated  anodyne  cemenf 
was  similar  to  it,  with  the  addition  of  morphia.  These  cements 
served  only  a  temporary  purpose,  the  last  also  having  as  part  of  its 
object  the  relief  of  pain.  Robinson  says,  that,  a  "  few  hours"  after 
their  introduction,  "  they  dry,  crumble,  and  fall  out."  * 

The  first  plastic  fillings  which  possessed,  in  any  great  degree,  the 
attribute  of  permanence  were  those  sometimes  called,  somewhat  para- 
doxically. 

Fusible  3fetaL — Of  this  variety  of  filling  materials,  two  alloys 
may  be  mentioned  as  the  principal.  D'Arcet's  mineral  cement  was 
first  in  the  field.  This  is  simply  Newton's  alloy,  of  eight  parts  bis- 
muth, five  lead,  and  three  tin,  with  occasionally  the  addition  of"  one- 
tenth  part  of  mercury  to  hasten  the  fusing.  Foxf  speaks  of  this 
process  as  one  "which  promises  to  be  very  successful  in  all  cases 
where  the  tooth  is  not  tender  and  the  caries  is  situated  in  the  centre." 
But  all  dentists  were  not  thus  lenient.  Koecker|  says  of  it,  "The 
destructive  effects  of  this  process  are  so  evident,  and  consequently 
the  impossibility  of  any  beneficial  result  so  certain,  that  I  should 
consider  it  unnecessary  to  enumerate  its  pernicious  consequences." 
This  rather  polysyllabic  denunciation,  however,  did  not  prevent  the 
very  extensive  employment  of  the  much  anathematized  material. 
In  France  this  process  was,  for  a  time,  more  used  than  any  other ; 
and  was  also  considerably  practiced  in  this  country,  where  it  was 
introduced  in  1820.§ 

Wood's  metal  succeeded  D'Arcet's,  after  an  interval  of  disuse  of  the 
latter,  in  1860.||  Like  its  predecessor,  it  enjoyed  merely  an  ephemeral 
popvdarity,  and  soon  fell  into  disuse. 

The  first  of  these  alloys  becomes  pla.stic  at  212°  F.,  and  the  last 
at  about  140°  F. ;  their  manipulation  was  very  similar,  being  v^aried 
only  by  the  different  degrees  of  heat  required,  for  each.  D'Arcet's 
was  generally  melted  and  poured  into  the  cavity,  previously  cleaned 


*  Loc.  cit.,  p.  111.  f  Natural  History  and  Diseases  of  the  Teeth,  1833. 

X  Loc.  cit.,  p.  396  (182G).  §  Ibid.,  p.  397. 

II  Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  iv.  p.  59. 


i 


OPERATIVE    DENTISTRY.  61 

and  dried.  AVood's  had  pieces  placed  in  the  cavity  cold;  and  tliere 
made  plastic  with  a  hot  instrument. 

Asbestos. — This  curious  mineral  was  experimented  with,  about 
1840,  as  a  liniiig  under  metallic  fillings,  where  the  latter  were  to  be 
inserted  over  pulps  likely  to  be  sensitive  to  changes  of  temperature, 
it  being  one  of  the  best  non-conductors  of  heat  known.*  Dr.  Rob- 
inson, of  London,  also  recommended  it  to  be  mixed  with  collodion, 
and  introduced  as  a  temporary  filling  in  cases  of  sensitive  dentine.f 
The  material,  however,  never  attained  any  very  extended  use  for 
either  [)urpose. 

About  the  year  1826,  M.  Taveau,  of  Paris,  advocated  the  use  of 
what  he  called  "  silver  paste"  for  permanent  fillings.  Under  this,  as 
it  were,  shining  title,  was  ushered  into  the  world  what  was  destined 
to  be  for  years  the  Hydra  of  dentistry, — 

Amalgam. — Its  introduction  into  this  country  (the  exact  date  is 
undetermined)  is  believed  to  have  been  by  "the  Crawcours,"  as  have 
ever  since  been  contemptuously  denominated  two  French  empirics 
who  came  to  New  York  in  1833.  Dental  writers  of  the  period  are 
unanimous  in  representing  our  ancestors  of  that  date  as  extremely  and 
peculiarly  gullible;  for,  they  say,  "the  Crawcours  had  an  enormous 
run  of  custom" ;  quite  sufficiently  so,  we  are  assured  by  a  dentist  who 
was  then  in  practice,  to  seriously  interfere  with  the  best  business  of 
the  profession  in  their  locality.  The  troubles  arising  from  the  im- 
positions of  these  men,  as  well  as  the  dissensions  consequent  on  the 
use  of  the  material  itself,  will  be  hereafter  treated.  At  present  we 
shall  be  confined  to  an  examination  of  the  material  and  its  uses. 

The  amalgam  proposed  by  M.  Taveau  was  simply  a  union  of  pure 
silver  and  mercury.  Convenience,  however,  dictated  the  replacement 
of  purified  silver  by  coin  of  the  same  metal.  This  coin,  being  filed, 
had  afterward  added  sufficient  mercury  to  make  a  paste  or  plastic 
mass;  from  whicli  the  free  mercury  was  expressed  by  pliers,  the 
residue  being  introduced  into  the  cavity  where  it  soon  liardened. 
This  form  of  amalgam  has  been,  perhaps,  more  generally  and  widely 
used  than  any  other. 

In  1848,  Dr.  Evans,  of  Paris,  introduced  an  amalgam  of  pure 
tin  with  a  small  quantity  of  cadmium. |  At  first,  much  was  expected 
of  this  mixture.     It  was  claimed  that  it  did  not  discolor,  shrink,  or 


*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  1st  Series,  vol.  i.  p.  241. 
t  New  York  Dental  Recorder,  vol.  iii.  p.  168. 
X  Ibid.,  p.  211. 


62 


HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 


change  in  the  moutli.  Biit  further  experiment  with  it  discovered 
various  defects,  as  contraction  and  discoloration ;  which  are  partially 
noted  by  Dr.  Evans  himself,  in  a  letter  to  IMessrs.  Jones,  White  &  Co. 
in  1849-50.*  He  therefore  advised  its  discontinuance,  and  the  advice 
appears  to  have  been  taken;  for  his  material  was  little  used.  In 
fact,  the  addition  of  cadmium  to  later  amal<::ams  has  generally  been 
unsuccessful. t  Still,  this  statement,  though  founded  on  considerable 
research,  is  not,  perhaps,  to  be  entirely  relied  on ;  for  it  is  recorded 
(though  only  as  an  opinion)  that  cadmium,  without  other  metal  than 
mercury,  was  used  (18G3)  as  a  iilling.;{: 

In  1855,  Dr.  Elisha  Townsend,  of  Philadelphia,  proposed  an 
amalgam  to  consist  of  four  parts  silver  and  five  parts  tin,  melted 
together  and  afterward  reduced  to  filings.  With  these,  when  about 
to  be  used,  mercury  was  mixed  in  such  quantity  as  to  produce  a 
perfectly  plastic  mass,  and  the  whole  was  well  washed  in  absolute 
alcohol.  The  free  mercury  was  then  expressed  by  squeezing,  and 
the  material  formed  into  a  stiif  cake  "which  can  be  broken  into 
pieces  and  (the  pieces)  be  made  to  adhere  to  each  other  so  as  to  form 
a  uniform  solid  mass."§  This  amalgam  was  the  kind  in  most  general 
use  in  1S03.1| 

Among  the  meta,ls  latterly  used  in  amalgams,  palladium  and  pla- 
tinum may  be  mentioned,  thougli  not  fully  treated  of,  for  they  are 
still  in  process  of  trial. 

The  earlier  amalgams  frequently  had  mixed  with  them  non-metallic 
bodies,  as  finely  pulverized  glass  or  pumice,T[  in  order  to  render  the 
combination  more  resistant  to  abrasion;  but,  as  may  be  supposed, 
such  additions  proved  to  be  worse  than  useless  for  the  purpose,  being 
non-contractile,  and  destroying  the  homogeneity  of  the  amalgam; 
and  they  were  very  soon  cast  aside. 

From  time  to  time  in  the  history  of  amalgam,  metals  other  than 
those  named  have  been  used  in  its  composition.  As  some  of  these 
have  been  entirely  discarded,  and  others  are  still  undergoing  experi- 
ment, and  also  bewuise  the  manufacture  of  the  article  has  latterly 
become,  like  gold  foil,  confined  to  special  fabricators,  it  is  not  deemed 
necessary  to  pursue  this  part  of  the  subject. 


*  Atncriciin  .Joiirniil  of  Dontal  Scionce,  1st  S'Tios,  vol.  x.  p.  142. 

f  Transiiction^  of  the  New  York  Odontologicnl  Society,  1874,  p.  31. 

X  Dontal  Cosmos,  vol.  iv.  p.  356,  note. 

^  Dental  News  Letter,  vol.  ix.  p.  40. 

II  Dental  Co?!nos,  vol.  iv.  p.  356. 

^  Ilurris'-s  Dictionary  of  Dental  Science,  p.  33 


OPERATIVE    DENTISTRY.  63 

The  Amalgam  War. — The  introduction  of  amalgam  to  this  country 
is  noted  as  follows  by  Dr.  C  A.  Plarris,  in  the  ojiening  addrcvss  to 
the  first  class  of  the  Baltimore  College  of  Dental  Surgery,  1840:* 

"More  recently  an  amalgam  of  mercury  and  silver  has  been  highly 
extolled  by  a  few  practitioners,  both  in  this  and  other  countries;  but 
by  most  of  those  who  have  had  teeth  filled  with  it,  bitterly  denounced, 
— so  that  ....  it  has  nearly  gone  into  disuse.  It  is  certainly  one 
of  the  most  objectionable  articles  for  filling  teeth  that  can  be  employed, 
and  yet,  from  the  wonderful  virtues  ascribed  to  this  pernicious  com- 
pound by  those  who  used  it,  thousands  were  induced  to  try  its 
efficacy." 

At  the  very  first  appearance  of  this  filling  material  in  this  coun- 
try (in  1833),  there  arose  a  most  violent  and  determined  o})position 
to  it,  on  the  part  of  the  best  men  in  the  profession.  In  view  of  the 
particular  circumstances  attending  its  debut,  it  is  not,  perhaps,  sin- 
gular that  it  should  have  been  opposed.  Two  adventurers,  with- 
out skill  or  experience,  or  any  claim  to  the  title  of  dentist,  suddenly 
appeared  in  New  York  and  began  dental  practice  amid  such  a 
shower  of  advertisements,  a  profusion  of  display,  and  a  metaphorical 
flourish  of  trumpets  as  caused  our  staid  and  dignified  dental  ancestry 
to  bound  with  surprise  and  indignation.  Even  had  the  Crawcours 
practiced  in  the  ordinary  manner,  and  with  the  then  common  ma- 
terials, there  is  little  doubt  that  such  an  unprecedented  method  of 
introduction  would  have  quite  as  surely  aroused  the  opposition  of 
respectable  practitioners,  on  grounds  of  unprofessional  conduct;  and 
when  to  this  charge  was  added  the  enormity  of  having  introduced, 
and  of  using,  solely,  a  new  filling  material  containing  mercury,  the 
exasperation  of  the  better  class  of  dentists  was  raised  to  the  highest 
pitch. 

Again,  had  the  practice  of  the  Crawcours  been  of  little  value, 
pecuniarily,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  their  opponents  would 
have  contented  themselves  with  simply  discountenancing  the  efforts 
of  the  empirics,  as  they  had  uniformly  done  in  the  cases  of  others  of 
the  class;  in  which  case  the  "amalgam  war"  would  never  have  been. 
But,  on  the  contrary,  the  offices  of  the  quacks  were  soon  thronged 
with  the  best  patients  of  the  foremost  dentists.  The  gold  plugs  of 
Parmly,  Baker,  and  Greenwood,  were  suddenly  no  longer  in  demand, 
for  the  "Royal  Mineral  Succedaneum"  had  displacedf  them.     Our 

*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  1st  Series,  vol.  i.  p.  202. 

t  In  some  cases /i^era//y.     Sec  Sponner's  "  Guide  to  Sound  Teeth,"  p.  122,  note. 


64 


HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 


grandfathers  and  grandmothers  naturally  preferred  a  few  moments' 
reclining  in  a  luxurious  easy-chair  and  the  gentle  insinuation  of  a 
plastic  material  to  the  tiresome  and  painful  operation  necessary  to 
the  introduction  of  a  gold  filling.  Liveried  attendants  heeded  their 
slightest  wants;  the  principals  themselves  were  polite  even  to  adula- 
tion; and  everything  was  artfully  calculated  to  make  the  operations 
matters  of  pleasure  rather  than  of  pain  and  endurance. 

To  combat  such  a  foe,  no  ordinary  means  of  offense  were  to  be 
thought  of;  only  the  promptest  and  most  vigorous  measures  seemed 
admissible ;  and  no  time  was  lost  in  initiating  and  carrying  out  such 
measures.  Everj^'here  the  empirics  were  denounced,  their  modes 
of  practice  severely  criticised,  and  their  material  especially  roughly 
handled.  INIercurial  salivation  as  a  result  of  the  Crawcours'  opera- 
tions was  not  only  hinted  at,  but  openly  and  firmly  insisted  on;  and 
was,  moreover,  as  firmly  believed  in  by  the  most  scientific  and  best 
educated  dentists  of  the  day.  In  short,  a  relentless  crusade  was 
begun  against  the  "  foreign  quacks."  Such  an  attack,  participated 
in,  as  it  was,  by  almost  every  principal  dentist,  not  only  in  New 
York  but  in  the  country,  was  tremendous ;  and  its  disastrous  effects 
were  greatly  increased  by  the  bad  results  of  the  operations  performed 
by  those  attacked.  Their  methods  seem  to  have  been  totally  devoid 
of  the  elements  of  success.  Cavities  were  never  excavated  or  even 
dried,  the  stopping  being  quickly  thrast  into  its  place  and  smoothed 
off.  In  many  instances  where  there  were  no  cavities,  amalgam  had 
been  stuffed  between  the  teeth.  The  material  itself  seems  to  have  been 
very  carelessly  or  ignorantly  prepared,  a  large  excess  of  mercury 
often  remaining  after  introduction;  which  not  only  prevented 
hardening,  but  was  even  squeezed  out  into  the  mouth  during  mastica- 
tion! The  impostors  might  have  successfully  resisted  the  advance 
of  all  their  professional  opponents;  but  the  additional  onslaught  of 
the  victims  of  their  charlatanry  quickly  produced  defeat;  and  they 
"were  compelled  to  fly  with  their  ill-gotten  gain  and  blasted  reputa- 
tion (?)  for  refuge  to  another  land."* 

With  the  dc])artnrc  of  the  Crawcours  it  w;i.s  supposed  that  the  use 
of  their  material  would  cease;  but  such  was  not  the  fact.  Amalgam 
possessed  too  many  advantages  of  manipulation  to  be  lightly  dis- 
carded, especially  for  the  cheaper  class  of  operations,  and  by  the  lower 
grades  of  operators;  though  its  use  was  not  by  any  means  confined 
to  these,  for  several  men  of  excellent  public  and  professional  reputa- 


*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  1st  Scries,  vol.  i.  p.  2C3. 


OPERATIVE    DENTISTRY.  65 

tion  had  begun  to  use  it.     Hence  the  opposition  to  the  Crawoours 
was  transferred  to  the  amalgam  they,  had  left  behind  them. 

It  is  extremely  difficult,  at  this  time,  to  indicate  exactly  the  ratio 
of  prejudice  to  actual  knowledge  of  bad  effects,  in  the  opposition  to 
this  material ;  but  it  may  be  safely  stated  that  prejudice  constituted 
the  largest  factor  in  the  problem.  In  saying  this,  we  do  not  wish  to 
be  understood  as  disparaging  the  scientific  knowledge  of  the  opponents 
of  amalgam.  There  were,  it  is  true,  many  statements  made,  and 
conclusions  arrived  at  by  them,  which  appear,  at  present,  inexpli- 
cable in  any  light  furnished  by  reason  or  the  true  and  liberal  spirit 
of  scientific  research ;  but  there  may  have  been  attendant  circum- 
stances which,  if  now  known,  would  modify  our  judgment  of  these 
matters.  Nevertheless,  experience  has  since  proved  the  falsity  of 
many  of  the  alleged  mischievous  results  attending  the  use  of  amal- 
gam, and  has  explained  in  quite  a  different  manner  such  results. 

A  further  and  powerful  argument  in  support  of  the  view  we  have 
taken  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  experiment  with  the  material  was 
very  slightly  (when  at  all)  conducted  by  its  adversaries.  The  most 
zealous  of  .these  even  claimed  (and  as  a  merit,  too)  that  they  had 
"  never  touched  amalgam."  However  the  opposition  of  such  antago- 
nists may  have  then  bean  regarded,  it  would  certainly,  at  this  day, 
receive  very  little  attention  ;  being  in  direct  violation  of  the  maxim, 
"  Prove  all  things,  hold  fast  that  which  is  good." 

As  was  to  be  expected,  the  long-continued  opposition  to  amalgam 
as  a  material  resulted  in  the  production  for  it  of  defenders.  At  first 
this  defense  was  passive,  consisting  in  simple  non-acceptance  of  the 
conclusions  arrived  at  and  the  opinions  held  by  the  opposition ;  but 
such  inactivity  was  soon  roused  into  open  resistance ;  and  that,  too, 
on  the  part  of  many  who  stood  high  in  the  profession.  Before  the 
existence  of  dental  societies  the  disputes  thus  engendered  could,  neces- 
sarily, take  the  character  of  only  personal  differences;  which  were 
none  the  less  pronounced  and  l)itter  from  the  absence  of  any  authority 
to  be  attached  to  them,  and  which,  in  common  with  such  controversies 
in  general,  possessed  a  very  considerable  share  of  the  element  of 
permanence.  Hence  it  was,  that  the  first  official  acts  of  the  earlier 
societies  were  in  the  direction  of  the  "  amalgam  question." 

Of  the  minor  quarrels  and  bickerings,  both  in  and  out  of  societies, 
to  which  this  question  gave  birth,  it  will  be  useless  (and,  indeed,  im- 
po.?sible)  to  speak.  Their  name  is  legion.  We  pass  on  to  that  action 
of  the  American  Society  of  Dental  Surgeons  which  formally  inaugu- 
rated the  "  amaUjam  ifa/'." 


66  HISTORY   OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

The  first  official  lu-t  in  the  matter  was  the"  appointment  (1841)  of 
a  committee  by  the  above  Society,  to  report  on  the  use  of  "  Mithodeon,' 
'  mineral  paste/  and  all  other  substances  of  which  mercury  is  an  in- 
gredient for  stopping  teeth,"  This  committee  "reported  in  substance 
that  the  use  of  all  such  articles  was  hurtful,  both  to  the  teeth  and 
everv  part  of  the  mouth,  and  that  there  was  no  tooth  in  which  csiries 
in  it  could  be  arrested,  and  the  organ  rendered  serviceable  by  being 
filled,  in  which  gold  could  not  be  employed."*  This  report  was 
adopte<l  unanimously. 

It  will  be  well  to  note  the  names  of  the  members  of  this  committee. 
Thcv  were,  Eleazer  Family,  Elisha  Baker,  Solyman  Brown,  Chapin 
A.  Harris,  and  Jahial  Parmly. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  same  Society,  July  20th,  1843,  on  a  motion 
made  by  Dr.  C.  A.  Harris,  the  use  of  amalgam  was  declared  to  be 
malpractice,  and  a  committee  consisting  of  Drs.  S.  Brown,  E.  Parmly, 
and  J.  H.  Foster  was  appointed  "  to  receiv^e  information  and  facts  on 
that  subject,  to  be  transmitted  to  Dr.  Westcott,  of  Syracuse,  New 
York,  to  be  by  him  laid  before  the  IMedical  Society  of  the  County  of 
Onondaga,  of  that  State,  before  which  the  subject  aforesaid  is  now 
pending."  f 

The  report  of  the  medical  committee  was  somewhat  non-committal. 
One  quotation,  the  summing-up,  may  be  made  to  show  this :  "  That 
the  mineral  paste  has  produced,  in  many  instances,  the  peculiar  effects 
of  mercury,  though  in  different  degrees  of  intensity,  in  some  slight, 
in  others  severe  and  alarming,  there  can  be  no  doubt.  The  com- 
mittee believe  that  the  proportion  of  such  cases  is  small  compared 
with  the  whole  number  operated  upon,  but  that  no  care  in  the  combi- 
nation or  use  of  the  paste  will  prevent  its  occasional  bad  effects." 

In  August,  1845,  at  the  organization  of  the  Mississippi  Valley 
Association  of  Dental  Surgeons,  the  following  resolution  was  unani- 
mously passed :  "  Resolved,  That  we  consider  the  use  of  all  mineral 
paste,  or  other  paste,  in  the  plugging  of  teeth,  as  unprofessional  and 
highly  injurious,  and  that  we  will  neither  use  it,  nor  countenance  its 
use  by  others."  X  From  this  it  will  be  inferred,  not  only  that  the  use 
of  the  "  paste"  was  continued, — des])ite  the  assertion  of  Dr.  Harris  to 
the  contrary  in  1840, — but  that  it  was  assuming  even  alarming  pro- 
portifHis.  In  fact,  many  of  the  best  dentists  began  to  use  amalgam ; 
and  it  was  asserted,  and  with  some  color  of  probability,  that  there 


*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  1st  Scries,  vol.  ii.  p.  13G. 
f  Ibid.,  vol.  iv.  p.  70.  J  Ibid.,  vol.  vi.  p.  47. 


OPERATIVE    DENTISTRY.  67 

were  "  instances  where  individuals  have  been  active  in  expressing, 
publiclv,  their  disapprobation  of  the  use  of  the  mercurial  cement, 
even  voted  on  resolutions  ao-ainst  it  before  a  bodv  of  scientific  jrentle- 
men,  and  yet  are  secretly  in  the  habit  of  using  it."  * 

The  employment  of  amalgam  was  fast  passing  from  bad  to  good 
hands.  Many  good  operators  did  not  scruple  to  use  it  openly,  and 
many  others,  equally  good,  while  making  no  parade  of  it,  yet  used  it 
to  a  considerable  extent.  Its  antagonists  began  to  feel  that  the  crisis 
was  upon  them,  and  that,  unless  decisive  action  was  taken,  they  were 
undone.  Accordingly,  the  American  Society  of  Dental  Surgeons, 
at  its  annual  meeting,  New  York,  August  5th,  1845,  on  motion  of  Dr. 
John  B.  Rich,  adopted  the  following  resolution:  "Resolved,  That  a 
committee  of  investigation  be  appointed;  such  committee  to  consist 
of  five  members  of  this  association,  to  be  nominated  by  the  chair. 
The  duty  of  the  committee,  so  appointed,  shall  be  to  call  upon  each 
of  the  members  now  in  this  city,  with  the  view  to  ascertain  from 
each  member  wliether  he  has  used  any  amalgam  in  the  course  of  his 
practice  as  a  dental  surgeon,  or  approves  of  its  use;  and  if  he  has 
used  it,  whether  he  has  done  so  within  the  last  twelve  months.  And 
it  is  further  resolved,  That  the  said  committee  of  five  be  particularly 
requested  to  obtain,  if  possible,  a  direct  answer  on  this  subject,  from 
each  and  every  member  so  called  upon."t  The  members  of  this 
committee  were  Drs.  J.  B.  Rich,  J.  Taylor,  J.  Allen,  E.  J.  Dunning, 
and  Alex.  Nelson. 

This  resolution  was  not  adopted  without  much  debate.  The  right 
of  the  Society  to  call  upon  its  members  for  an  exposition  of  their 
practice  was  severely  questioned ;  and,  also,  the  Society  was  no  longer 
a  unit  on  the  subject  of  the  use  of  amalgam.  Its  use  was  declared 
to  be  "occasionally  admissible"  by  several  members;];  chief  among 
whom  was  Dr.  E.  Baker,  whose  name  we  have  before  seen  as  one  of 
the  committee  who  reported  that  the  "use  of  all  such  articles  was 
hurtful,"  etc.,  but  who  now  "contended  that  in  'certain  cases'  it  could 
be  judiciously  employed. "§  Dr.  Solyman  Brown,  also,  "questioned 
the  right  of  the  Society  to  demand  of  its  members  their  private  prac- 
tice, and  contended  that  '  no  one  ought  to  be  required  to  pledge  him- 
self not  to  use  any  article,  as  his  conscience  might  demand  that  he 
should  use  it.'  "|| 


*  American  Journal  of  Dt-ntal  Science,  1st  Series,  vol.  v.  p.  277. 

t  Ibi;l.,  vol.  vi.  p.  74.  |  Ibid.,  p.  75. 

^  Ibid.  II  Ibid. 


68  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

The  iiKiiiisitorial  committee  declared  in  their  report  that,  out  of 
twenty-five  members  of  the  Society  resident  in  New  York  and  Brook- 
lyn, two  were  absent,  two  not  in  practice,  ten  disapproved  entirely  of 
amalsjam,  five  had  employed  it,  but  were  willing  to  discontinue  that 
employment  if  required, — and  six  used  it  under  certain  circumstances 
and  refused  to  pledge  themselves  not  to  do  so.  Three  of  these,  how- 
ever, subsequently  advised  the  Society  that  they  should  discontinue 
its  employment.*  Of  twenty-one  non-resident  membei's  then  present, 
all  condemned  the  material. f  Whereupon  a  committee  of  five  was 
appointed  to  devise  a  plan  of  action  for  the  Society  in  the  matter. 
This  committee  consisted  of  Drs.  Hullihen,  J.  Taylor,  E.  Noyes,  J. 
B.  Rich,  and  C.  A.  Harris.  Their  report,  after  insisting  that  any 
amalgam,  whatever  its  designation,  Avas  unfit  and  dangerous  for  use 
as  a  filling,  concluded  as  follows, — "  That  any  member  of  this  Society 
who  shall  hereafter  refuse  to  sign  a  certificate  pledging  himself  not 
to  use  any  amalgam,  and,  moreover,  protesting  against  its  use,  under 
any  circumstances,  in  dental  practice,  shall  be  expelled  from  this 
Society.";!;  An  amendment  also  provided  that  the  recording  secretary 
should  notify  all  members  of  these  resolutions,  and  forward  to  each 
a  printed  pledge  or  certificate  as  provided  for  in  the  committee's 
report,  to  be  signed  and  returned  within  sixty  days  of  the  date  of  its 
issue,  under  penalty  of  the  recipients  being  dropped  from  the  rolls 
if  reciilcitrant.§ 

The  Society  also,  at  this  meeting,  sent  a  circular  letter  to  the  peri- 
odicals of  the  country,  condemning  amalgam  in  the  strongest  terms, 
and  advising  the  public  of  the  foregoing  resolutions. ||  They  further 
resolved  to  constitute  the  Society  "a  vigilance  committee,  to  report  all 
cases  of  malpractice  which  may  come  to  the  knowledge  of  any  of  its 
members."^ 

This  arbitrary  action  of  the  Society  was  received,  not  only  by  the 
expelled  members  but  by  many  non-society  dentists,  with  great 
indignation.  The  right  of  the  Society  to  take  compulsory  action  was 
stoutly  denied;  and  the  "pledge,"  when  it  finally  reached  the  members, 
served  only  to  increase  the  storm.  The  Virginia  Society  of  Surgeon 
Dentists,  at  their  meeting  in  October,  1845,  while  passing  a  resolution 
strongly  condemnatory  of  amalgam,  yet  concluded  by  saying, — "That 
while  we  reprobate  the   use  of  all  such  mercurial  preparations,  and 


*  American  Journnl  of  Dental  Science,  1st  Series,  vol.  vi.  p.  76. 
t  Ibid.,  p.  247,  note.  %  Ibid.,  p.  80. 

I  Ibid.,  p.  81.  II  Ibid.,  p.  82.  ^  Ibid.,  p.  84. 


OPERATIVE    DENTISTRY.  69 

will  execute  our  laws  with  fidelity  aud  promptness,  we  claim  no 
authority  over  the  opinions  of  our  members,  nor  will  we  ever  require 
of  them  other  pledges  than  those  which  exist  among  honorable  men, 
united  for  the  purpose  of  improving  and  elevating  a  noble  science."* 
The  debates  on  this  resolution  took  the  general  tone  of  a  declaration 
that  "the  Society  was  not  a  court  of  conscience;  that  they  had  no 
right  to  demand  any  expression  of  opinions,  or  to  require  any  pledge 
in  relation  to  the  use  of  mercurial  cements;  that  the  Society  having 
declared  their  use  malpractice,  the  only  course  to  pursue  was  to 
arraign  an  accused  member,  and,  upon  conviction,  execute  the  law. 
To  expel  for  refusing  to  express  an  opinion  or  to  give  a  pledge  was 
making  the  refusal  malpractice  under  the  law,  which  was  nonsensical 
and  absurd.  It  was  also  contended  that  to  require  action  under  a 
threat  Avas  a  course  of  procedure  to  which  no  honorable  man  would 
submit."t  These  opinions  are  typical  of  the  arguments  and  feelings 
of  the  protestants  against  the  American  Society's  action. 

On  the  part  of  the  Society's  supporters  it  was  contended  that  the 
evil  of  the  employment  of  amalgam  had  become  "  a  crying  one,  and 
was  rapidly  spreading.  ...  At  three  successive  meetings  the  Society 
had  passed  resolutions  declaring  its  use  for  dental  purposes  malprac- 
tice ;  but,  notwithstanding  this,  many  of  the  members  continued  to 
use  it.  It  was  therefore  imperative  on  the  part  of  the  Society  to 
adopt  some  strong  measures  to  repel  the  imputation  which  was  thus 
crippling  its  energies  and  weakening  its  power  to  do  good.  The 
arraignment  and  expulsion  of  one  or  a  dozen  of  its  members  would 
not  have  corrected  the  evil,  so  long  as  others,  against  whom  positive 
proof  of  the  fact  was  wanting,  were  charged  with  using  the  article. 
To  prevent  such  charges,  and  at  once  to  free  itself  from  all  who  per- 
sisted in  this  empirical  practice,  it  had  adopted  the  resolutions  of 
examination  and  expulsion."! 

Of  the  membership  (134)  of  the  Society,  seventy-six  complied 
with  the  resolutions,  either  in  the  letter,  by  signing  within  the 
allotted  time,  or  in  spirit,  by  stating  their  willingness  to  do  so ;  and 
fifty-eight  failed  to  comply  with  the  requirements,  either  by  direct 
refusal  (3),  by  not  having  received  the  notice  (2),  or  by  disregard- 
ing it  entirely  (53). §  The  forbearance  of  the  recording  secretary 
saved  these  latter  from  expulsion ;  and  the  Society,  seeing  so  large  a 


*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  1st  Series,  vol.  vi.  p.  IGO. 
t  Ibid.  +  Ibid.,  p.  1G8. 

I  Ibid.,  vol.  vii.  pp.  91,  92. 


70  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAN   DENTISTRY. 

luiiiority  in  the  opposition,  decided  to  mitigate  the  severity  of  the 
rasohitions  by  abrogating  that  part  of  them  which  related  to  the 
limit*  of  time  for  accpiiescenee  in  their  demands.  This  recession, 
however,  served  only  to  increiise  the  vigor  of  the  opposition,  and  in 
the  next  meeting,  at  Saratoga,  1847,  resolutions  were  passed  declaring 
that  "  this  Society  will  not  expel  any  member  who  is  not  in  tiie  prac- 
tice of  using  or  recommending  the  use  of  amalgam  for  filling  teeth."* 
This  resolution  disposed  of  the  cases  of  all  those  who  did  not  use  the 
article,  but  had  refused  to  sign  the  pledge.  The  remainder  of  the 
protestants,  who  did  not  scruple  to  employ  amalgam,  when  necessary, 
in  their  practice,  were  then  expelled,  according  to  the  previous  reso- 
lutions ;  for  not  to  have  done  so  would  have  been,  in  effect,  acknowl- 
edging that  "  the  mandate"  was  wrongfully  issued.  Eleven  members 
were  expelled,  the  resignation  of  one  aceeptcd,  and  four  cases  laid 
over  until  the  next  annual  meeting,  in  1848,t  at  which  time  four 
more  resignations  were  accepted,  and  the  cases  laid  over  the  year 
before  were  again  extended. J 

The  Society  had  now  done  all  in  its  power  to  prevent  the  use  of 
the  reprobated  material ;  but  that  use,  instead  of  being  stopped,  or 
even  lessened,  was  steadily  increasing.  Intelligent  and  earnest  men 
experimented  with  it,  instead  of  depending  on  the  statements  and 
opinions  of  othei's,  and  amalgam  at  length  obtained,  in  great  measure, 
what  it  had  never  yet  arrived  at, — a  fair  trial.  Under  this  condition 
of  things  there  could  be  but  one  result.  The  material  withstood  the 
tests  applied,  in  the  opinion  of  the  majority,  and  it  at  length  became  a 
necessity  for  the  American  Society  of  Dental  Surgeons  to  take  some 
retrograde  action  in  the  premises.  Many  of  its  membei-s  were  in 
favor  of  the  Society's  openly  acknowledging  the  mistake  it  had  com- 
mitted, and  thus  place  itself  again  on  a  firm  footing  in  the  respect 
and  esteem  of  the  profession ;  but  others  were  either  unwilling  to 
retreat  so  entirely  from  the  position  they  had  before  taken,  or  thought 
that  no  mistake  had  been  made.  The  schism  ended  in  the  ])assage, 
August  13th,  1850,  of  the  following  resolution,  which  was  introduced 
by  a  committee  previously  appointed  to  report  on  the  propriety  of 
rescinding  the  "  amalgam  pledge"  resolutions :  "  Resolved,  That  the 
several  resolutions  ado])ted  by  the  American  Society  of  Dental  Sur- 
geons, at  the  annual  meeting  held  1845  and  1846,  having  the  effect 
of  enforcing  the  subscription  to  the  protest  and  pledge  against  the 


*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  1st  Series,  vol.  viii.  p.  98. 
t  Ibid.  X  Ibid.,  vol.  ix.  p.  143. 


OPERATIVE    DENTISTRY.  71 

use  of  amalgam  and  mineral  pnste  fillings  for  teeth,  be,  and  the  same 
are,  hereby  rescinded  and  repealed."* 

As  this  repeal  was  not  accompanied  by  an  avowal  of  any  former 
error,  and  as  it  was  professedly  "  based  upon  the  belief  that  the  reso- 
lutions had  accomplished  the  object  for  which  they  were  designed, 
and  there  no  longer  existed  any  necessity  for  their  enforcement," f 
Dr.  John  B.  Rich,  having  become  convinced  that  the  former  action 
of  the  Society  in  the  matter  was  wrong,  tendered  his  resignation, 
which  was  accepted. | 

Thus  ended  the  official  character  of  the  "  amalgam  war."  That 
the  opponents  of  amalgam  acted  unwisely  and  precipitately,  and 
without  due  regard  to  the  proper  principles  of  scientific  inquiry  and 
research,  few  will  at  present  deny.  Instead  of  decreasing  the  estima- 
tion in  which  amalgam  had  been  held,  their  action  increased  it,  by 
leading  men  to  experiment  with  the  material  in  order  to  ascertain 
the  truth  or  prove  the  falsity  of  the  charges  made  against  it.  Other 
consequences  of  their  folly  will  be  noticed  in  treating  of  the  Ameri- 
can Society  of  Dental  Surgeons,  as  such. 

But  the  opposition  to  amalgam,  although  authoritatively  nearly  at 
an  end,  still  retained  all  the  acrimony  of  its  former  personal  status. 
Eleazer  Parmly  was  the  most  prominent  in  these  assaults,  which  he 
continued  wdth  unabated  vigor  for  many  years.  The  character  of  his 
enmity,  and,  in  fact,  that  of  much  of  the  whole  antagonism  to  amal- 
gam, may  be  inferred  from  a  statement  which  he  made  when  inter- 
rogated as  to  his  practical  knowledge  of  the  material :  "  I  have  neither 
used  nor  experimented  with  it  in  any  way.  I  would  not  touch  the 
nasty  stuff  !"§ 

No  history  of  the  profession  would  be  complete  without  the  story 
of  the  "amalgam  Avar."  While  the  acrimonious  contest  is  now  of 
interest  only  as  connected  -with  the  past,  the  presentation  of  new 
formulte  and  the  testing  of  their  value  in  the  present  leaves  the 
question  of  the  em})loyment  of  this  material  only  a  subject  of  ami- 
csible  discussion  and  scientific  study. 

Gutta-percha. — This  substance  came  into  use  as  a  material  for  tem- 
porary fillings  in  1 847-8, ||  and  was  very  well  received.     Its  use  soon 


*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  2il  Sc-ries,  vol.  i.  p.  92. 
t  Ibid.,  p.  100. 

I  Transactions  of  the  New  York  Odontologicnl  Society  for  1874,  p.  61,  ei  seq. 
§  Dr.  John  B.  Rich,  in  Transactions  of  the  Now  York  Odontological  Society 

for  1874,  p.  64. 

II  Dorital  Cosmos,  vol.  viii.  p.  6o8. 


72  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

became  almost  universal.  Dr.  AVood  says  of  it,*  "Few  substances 
have  in  so  short  a  time  acquired  more  importance  in  our  profession 
than  this."  As  the  methods  of  employment  were  substantially  the 
same  upon  its  introducticHi  as  they  are  at  present,  and  as  the  nature 
of  the  material  has  not  been  varied,  further  treatment  of  this  subject 
will  bo  needless. 

lliW.^  Stopinnrj  was  introduced  in  the  early  part  of  1848,  and  pat- 
ented in  1849.  This  was  an  attempt  to  render  gutta-percha  as  avail- 
able for  permanent,  as  it  had  proved  itself  for  temporary,  })urpose8. 
It  was  simply  a  compound  of  gutta-percha  with  quicklime  and  pow- 
dered quartz  and  feldspar,  which  might  be  varied  "  slightly  in  hard- 
iness by  adding  the  filings  of  any  of  the  metals  used  in  filling  teeth,"f 
and  to  which  coloring  substances  might  be  added.  A\'hen  first  intro- 
duced, and  when  prepared  according  to  the  patent  specification,  it  was 
not  of  much  value  ;|  but  it  was  subsequently  improved,  being  pre- 
pared (as  is  supposed)  after  another  and  secret  fornmla  ;§  and  obtained 
very  considerable  employment,  which  continues  to  the  present. 

Other  preparations  of  gutta-percha  with  additional  substances  for 
filling  purposes,  such  as  Bevins's  stopping,  etc.,  have  been  introduced, 
from  time  to  time,  and  have  each  served  more  or  less  successfully  the 
needs  of  the  dentist ;  but  as  they  are  constituted  and  manipulated  on 
the  same  general  plan  its  the  compound  of  Dr.  Hill,  further  notice 
of  them  will  not  be  attempted. 

Oxychloride  of  Zinc. — This  term  was,  at  first,  applied  to  the  chemi- 
cal compound  it  indicates;  but  has  become  almost  the  generic  name 
of  a  certain  class  of  filling  compounds  which  vary  considerably  in 
materials  and  composition.  "  It  had  its  origin  in  an  invention  of 
M.  Sorel  for  stucco-work  ....  (185(3)  consisting  in  a  coating  of 
oxide  of  zinc  overlaid  with  a  coating  of  chloride  of  zinc."||  The  in- 
ventor suggested  its  employment  "to  stop  hollow  teeth,  for  which  its 
plasticity  and  subsequent  impenetrability  to  the  moisture  of  the  mouth 
render  it  particularly  applicable."!  This  "  Sorel  cement,"  the  first 
of  the  oxychlorides,  wa.s  used  to  some  extent,  but  was  supplanted  by 
other  nearly  similar  combinations. 

The  specific  com])ounds  have  received  many  appellations,  as  osteo- 
plasty, crystal  cement,  diamond  dentine,  os-artijiciel,  jilastic  bone,  etc., 


*  Dental  Co«nios,  vol.  i.  p.  631. 

t  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  2d  Series,  vol.  ii.  p.  417. 

X  Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  iv.  p.  3J7.  J  Ibid. 

II  Ibid.,  p.  358.  «[  Ibid. 


OPERATIVE    DEXTISTKY.  73 

according  to  the  several  variations  or  the  fancy  of  the  manufactui'ers. 
Their  compositions  are  generally  held  secret ;  bat  it  is  certain  that 
the  whole  are  founded  on  one  general  base. 

For  a  number  of  years  after  its  introduction,  the  oxychloride  class 
of  fillings  was  somewhat  cautiously  handled,  and  seemed  to  make  its 
way  very  slowly;  but  of  late  years  its  employment  has  become  more 
extended,  and  it  now  has  a  i)lace  in  almost  all  operating-rooms.  It 
has  never,  however,  attained  very  great  importance  for  permanent 
fillings ;  although  (as  may  be  said  of  almost  every  filling  material)  it 
has  so  served  in  many  instances.  Its  real  value  lies  in  its  applica- 
bility to  such  cases  as  call  for  what  may  be  termed  ''  semi-permanent" 
stoppings;  here  it  has  proved  of  very  considerable  value,  and  is 
largely  used  for  such  purposes. 

TREATMENT  OF  THE  DENTAL  PULP. 

This  subject  has  been  a  prominent  one  in  dentistry  from  very  early 
times ;  but  the  first  practice  in  this  regard  was  quite  simple,  and,  like 
the  materia  medica  of  the  day,  confined  within  very  narrow  limits. 
From  the  absence  of  detail  in  any  accounts  of  early  operations  which 
we  now  possess  as  regards  American  dentistry,  a  resume  of  the  pro- 
cesses of  til  at  period  must  be  largely  inferred  from  the  practice  of 
contemporaneous  foreign  writers.  As  the  knowledge  of  the  science 
was  gained,  however,  and  when  once  out  of  the  shadow  of  secrecy  in 
operations,  the  profession  in  this  country  came  to  have  ways  pecu- 
liarly its  own  for  the  management  of  cases  of  diseased  or  exposed 
pulps;  and  from  that  time  the  data  regarding  new  remedies  and  pro- 
cesses are  so  numerous  and  conflicting  as  to  cause  much  more  trouble 
through  difficulty  of  selection  than  from  paucity  of  material. 

The  earliest  detailed  account  of  the  treatment  of  exposed  dental 
pulps  which  is  contemporaneous  with  dentistry  in  this  country,  oc- 
curs in  the  work  of  Robert  Woofendale  ("  Practical  Observations  on 
the  Human  Teeth"),  published  in  London,  1783.  Mr.  Woofendale 
returned  to  this  country  in  1795,*  and  from  thence  resided  with  us, 
part  of  the  time  in  the  practice  of  dentistry,  until  his  death  in  1828 ; 
therefore  his  methods  were  very  probably  known  and  practiced  here, 
at  Icilst  soon  after  his  second  coming  among  us.  Some  extracts  from 
his  book  will  be  of  interest. 

*  Til  is  is  the  Mr.  Woofendale  noticed  in  the  introduction  as  having  been  in 

Ameiicn  from  17GG  to  17G8. 


74  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

"  Of  the  common  toothache.  This  kind  of  toothache  is  simply  the 
exposed  nerve  of  the  tooth,  which  gives  pain  on  the  pressure  of  food 
in  mastication,  on  its  being  touched  with  any  hard  substance,  the  ap- 
plication of  anything  hot  or  cold,  or  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere. 
.  .  .  When  the  nerve  is  exposed,  a  small  bit  of  lint,  dipped  in  the 
oil  of  cinnamon,  cloves,  turpentine,  or  any  chemical  oil,  frequently 
gives  relief,  and  if  repeated  for  some  time,  often  destroys  the  nerve. 
I  have  known  good  eflfects  from  the  application  of  half  a  grain  of 
crude  opium,  rubbed  with  a  few  drops  of  common  water  to  the  con- 
sistence of  a  bolus,  with  the  addition  of  half  a  grain  of  camphor 
brought  to  the  same  consistence,  introduced  into  the  hollow  part  of 
the  tooth  with  a  small  portion  of  lint,  and  repeated  daily  for  eight  or 
ten  days.  .  .  .  This  kind  of  toothache  is  sometimes  cured  by  cau- 
terizing the  ear.  .  .  .  Destroying  the  exposed  nerve  of  a  tooth  by 
the  actual  cautery  is  an  ojieration  I  have  sometimes  performed  with 
success,  and  many  times  without  any." 

Benjamin  James,  in  "A  Treatise  on  the  Management  of  the 
Teeth,"  published  in  Boston  in  1814,  recommends,  in  addition  to  the 
opium  and  camphor  of  Woofendale,  a  drop  of  either  laudanum,  oil  of 
mint,  or  oil  of  cnjeput,  placed  in  the  hollow  of  the  tooth. 

Josiah  Foster  Flagg,  in  1822,  published  a  work  entitled  "  The 
Family  Dentist,"  in  which,  speaking  of  exposed  pulps,  and  after 
recommending  oil  of  cloves  or  of  cajeput,  he  says,  "  they  are  also 
sometimes  destroyed  by  the  dentist  ....  by  the  use  of  strong  min- 
eral acids,  or  by  instruments  designed  for  this  purpose." 

Koccker,  1826,  recommends*  attention  to  diet,  and  the  actual 
cautery,  and  stimulates  externally  with  myrrh,  camphor,  and  opium, 
to  reduce  inflammation  of  the  gums.  This  author  was  the  first  to 
introduce  the  operation  of  "  capping,"  which  will  be  noticed  presently. 

Dr.  S.  S.  Fitch,  in  1829,t  used  a.stringeuts,  as  alum,  borax,  and 
galls,  the  appliciition  to  be  renewed  every  ten  or  fifteen  days  for 
several  weeks,  or  even  months.  He  mentions  caustic  potash  as  a 
nerve-destroying  agent  which  had  then  been  used. 

In  a  small  work  on  the  "Economy  of  the  Teeth  and  Gums,"  pub- 
lished in  London,  in  1831,  the  author  (anonymous)  mentions  some 
of  the  practices  then  in  vogue,  which  belong  as  well  to  the  American 
as  to  the  foreign  dentistry  of  the  time.  He  speaks  of  the  application 
of  "  tinctures  and  essential  oils,  upon  cotton,  as  tincture  of  benjamin. 


*  Principles  of  Dental  Surgery,  London,  1826. 
t  Dental  Surgery,  New  York,  1829. 


OPERATIVE   DENTISTRY.  7o 

oil  of  marjoram,  rosemary,  and  the  like,  or  pills  made  of  camphor 
and  opium,  or  chewing  the  acrid  root  of  the  pelHtory  of  Spain. 
Some  destroy  the  nerve  with  sulphuric  or  nitrous  (?)  acid,  or  a  hot 
iron,  or  touch  the  antehelix  or  posterior  eminence  of  the  ear  with  the 
latter."  He  recommends  pills  of  extract  of  belladonna  and  pow- 
dered liquorice-root  to  be  placed  in  the  cavity  over  the  nerve,  and 
allowed  to  dissolve. 

We  now  come  to  an  important  year  in  pulp-treatment,  1836,  In 
this  year  Dr.  Shearjasluib  Spooner  gave  to  the  world  in  his  book, 
"Guide  to  Sound  Teeth,"  etc.,  the  use  of  the  agent  arscnious  acid 
for  the  destroying  of  tooth-pulps.  This  practice  originated  with  his 
brother,  J,  R.  Spooner,  of  ^Montreal.  Dr.  Spooner  (Shearjashub) 
says  of  it,  "  The  nerves  of  the  teeth  may  be  certainly  and  effectually 
destroyed,  with  little  or  no  pain  to  the  patient,  and  without  the  least 
danger,  by  means  of  a  little  arsenious  acid  applied  to  the  nerve." 
Also,  "  So  complete  and  satisfactory  is  the  operation  of  the  arsenic  in 
destroying  the  living  fibre,  that,  instead  of  extracting  teeth  whenever 
tlie  nerve  is  badly  exposed,  we  destroy  it,  plug  the  teeth,  and  thus 
]>reserve  them."  Dr.  Spooner  employed  a  mixture  of  three  parts 
arsenious  acid  and  one  part  acetate  of  morphia.  He  says,  "the 
twentieth  of  a  grain  (of  arsenic)  is  quite  enough  to  destroy  the  nerve 
of  any  tooth." 

He  also  mentions  nitric  acid  and  nitrate  of  silver  as  old  remedies, 
and  adds,  referring  to  actual  cautery,  "A  hot  wire  is  the  remains  of 
barbarism  ....  and  does  not  become  the  present  enlightened  day." 

Chapin  A.  Harris,  in  1839,*  recommended  the  application  of 
leeches  to  the  gum,  and  soothing  and  astringent  a[)plications  to  the 
cavity.  He  also  gives  the  following  formula  for  application  to  the 
pulp,  directing  it  to  be  introduced  on  raw  cotton  and  reapplied  every 
day:  "Sul.  ether,  51 -,  creasote,  5ss;  ext.  nutgalls,  5i ;  g.  camph., 
5SS."  He  adds  to  the  list  of  these  practiced  methods,  beside  those 
already  noted,  the  use  of  the  drill,  and  muriatic  acid.  With  regard  to 
the  then  new  employment  of  arsenic,  he  remarks  that,  "The  fact  that 
this  article  is  a  most  deadly  poison  ....  will  preclude  its  use  from 
ever  becoming  very  general."  And  he  names  "for  the  destruction 
of  the  nerve  in  teeth  which  have  but  one  fang,"  the  use  of  the  drill 
"  as  far  superior  to  anything  that  has  been  heretofore  proposed." 

James  Robinson,  writing  in  1846,t  speaks  of  terchloride  of  carbon, 

*  The  Dentiil  Art ;  a  Practical  Treatise  on  Dental  Surgery,  Baltimore,  1839. 
t  The  Surgical,  Jlechanical,  and  Medical  Treatment  of  the  Teeth,  London, 
184G. 


rl^^      LIBRARY     ■' 


/6  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

a  paste  of  morphia  and  crcasote  with  gum-ina.stic,  chloride  of  zinc,  and 
tannin  (tannic  acid?)  as  being  in  use  at  that  date. 

Since  the  last-mentioned  date  the  list  of  substances  for  application 
to  exposed  pulps  has  very  considerably  increased,  so  much  so  that 
only  the  most  prominent  of  them  can  be  noticed,  and  that  without 
any  reference  to  their  parentage  in  dentistry,  or  exact  statement  of 
the  order  of  their  appearance. 

Carbolic  acid  was  discovered  in  1834,  by  Runge,  and  thoroughly 
investigated  in  1841,  by  Laurent ;  but  it  was  not  until  long  after- 
ward that  it  Wiis  adopted  into  medicine.  The  first  published  notice 
of  it,  as  connected  with  dentistry,  which  we  have  been  able  to  pro- 
cure, is  that  by  Dr.  Geo.  T.  Barker,  in  the  fourth  volume  of  the 
Dental  Cosmos,  1862,  p.  189.  In  this  year  a  small  quantity  was 
imported  by  Dr.  Edward  Parrish,  and  used  in  supersedure  of  creasote 
by  Dr.  Barker,  who  spoke  highly  of  it.  Its  employment  has  since 
become  very  general,  and  it  has  proved  itself  to  be  a  valuable  acqui- 
sition to  dentistry. 

Thymol  is  a  substance  of  comparatively  recent  introduction,  hav- 
ing been  imported  and  used  about  1874  by  Dr.  A.  L.  Xorthrop. 
Carvacrol  was  introduced  about  the  same  time  by  Dr.  H.  L.  Sage. 
Salicylic  acid  is  still  newer  in  dentistry,  but  has  already  obtained 
quite  an  extended  employment.  Benzoic  acid,  the  latest  substance 
advocated  for  pulp-treatmeiit,  is  still  under  experimentation. 

The  above  account  is  believed  to  embody  the  principal  substances 
which  have  been  used  in  the  therapeutic  treatment  of  exposed  pulps. 
The  next  class  of  operations  to  be  considered  will  be  mainly  me- 
chanical. 

The  first  of  these,  in  the  order  of  time,  was  extirpation  by  steel, 
of  which  process  Hudson  is  believed  to  be  the  originator  in  this 
country.  This  method  was  also  largely  employed  by  other  distin- 
guished operators,  who  used  broaches,  barbed  or  not,  lus  the  occasion 
required,  but  is  now  rarely  practiced. 

Cappiaj  or  covering  an  exposed  pulp  was  practiced  by  D.  C. 
Ambler  and  others,  as  early  as  1827,  but  was  published  to  the  pro- 
fessi(jn  by  Koecker,  who  describes  it  fully  in  his  work  (already 
cited).  He  used  for  the  i)urpose  a  j)late  of  lead,  alleging  as  the 
reason  for  the  selection  of  this  metal,  that  it  had  a  cooling  and  anti- 
inflammatory effect  on  tlie  pulp-sul)stance.  If  the  pulp  Mas  wounded, 
he  applied  actual  cautery,  placing  the  cap  over  the  eschar  thus  formed, 
and  filling  the  cavity  with  gold. 

Upon  the  publication  of  Koecker's  method,  it  was  generally  tested 


OPERATIVE    DENTISTRY.  77 

and  received  with  favor.  Other  substances  for  caps  were  tried. 
Fitch  used  gold  caps.  Hullihen  performed  tlie  very  delicate  opera- 
tion of  inserting  a  cap  formed  of  gold  wire  wound  into  a  flat,  conical 
spiral,  in  connection  with  another  operation  soon  to  be  noticed.  Dr. 
Harris  used  no  cap,  but  arched  his  filling  over  the  pulp.  Asbestos, 
from  its  softness  and  non-conductibility  of  changes  of  temperature, 
was  early  and  considerably  used  as  a  capping  or  floor  for  the  filling, 
being  prepared  with  gums  or  collodion,  or  rolled  in  gold  foil.  Gutta- 
percha (Hill's  stopping),  silk,  charcoal,  paper,  quill,  tortoise-shell,  and 
horn  were  experimented  with.  Dr.  N.  C.  Keep  introduced  oxy- 
chloride  of  zinc,  which,  through  the  advocacy  of  Dr.  Wm.  H.  At- 
kinson and  others,  has  obtained  a  more  extended  use  than  any  other 
material  for  this  purpose. 

Several  of  these  substances  and  processes  have  received  much  at- 
tention from,  and  become  quite  extensively  employed  by,  the  general 
profession.  Asbestos  was  once  very  considerably  used,  but  is  no 
longer  so.  Gutta-percha  and  oxychloride  of  zinc  are,  perhaps,  in 
more  general  use  at  present  than  any  other  materials  for  this  pur- 
pose. 

In  1851,  Dr.  S.  P.  Hullihen  introduced  an  operation  at  once  so 
delicate  and  scientific  that  it  was  immediately  incorporated  in  dental 
practice,  and  has  ever  since  been  known  by  his  name.  This  opera- 
tion consisted  in  "  making  a  hole  through  the  gum,  the  outer  edge  of 
the  alveolar  process,  and  the  root  of  the  tooth  into  the  nerve-cavity, 
and  then  in  opening  the  blood-vessels  of  the  nerve."  *  Dr.  Hullihen 
had  first  practiced  this  operation  in  1845. 

Drilling  into  pulp-cavities  was  not  new ;  for  this  had  been  prac- 
ticed by  Hunter  and  Fox.  But  they  did  it  to  allow  the  escai)C  of 
pus ;  while  llullihen's  operation  was  intended  to  deplete  a  congested 
pulp  and  allow  its  preservation. 

Priority  in  this  operation  was  disputed  by  Dr.  S.  P.  Miller ;  but 
as  Dr.  Miller  drilled  through  the  root  in  order  to  divide  the  pulp, 
his  operation  cannot  be  called  identical  with  that  of  Hullihen,  which 
was  intended  to  preserve  the  pulp,  not  to  destroy  it.  A  method  more 
nearly  akin  to  Miller's  is  that  of  Fattori  (published  in  Maury's 
"Dental  Surgery,'^'  1843,  p.  166),  which  was,  piercing  the  gum  and 
alveolus  in  such  a  direction  as  to  "divide  the  dental  nerve  at  the 
point  where  it  enters  the  tooth." 

The  "  Hullihen  operation,"  or  rhizodontrypy,  though  widely  known 

*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  2d  Series,  vol.  iii.  p.  100. 


78  HISTORY   OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

and  esteemed,  is  rarely  practiced,  owing  to  the  great  skill,  care,  and 
exj)erienee  required  for  its  successful  performance. 

^^.notlier  operation,  of  very  considerable  excellence  and  based  on 
correct  surgical  principles,  is  that  proposed  and  performed  by  Dr. 
Allport,  of  Chicago.  The  object  of  this  o})eration  is  to  reduce  the 
bulk  of  the  liulj),  when  exposed,  previous  to  capping.  It  consists  in 
excising  a  portion  of  the  pulp  and  bringing  the  edges  of  the  wound 
into  close  apposition,  so  as  to  obtain  healing  by  first  intention.  It 
is  open  to  the  same  objections  as  the  operation  of  Dr.  Hullihen, — 
objections  which  are,  contrary  to  the  rule,  honorable  in  both  cases  to 
the  devisers  of  the  methods  in  question. 

In  all  methods  of  capping,  the  ultimate  design  is  now  to  secure  the 
production  of  secondary  dentine  at  the  exposed  point  of  the  pulp. 
This  object  is  not  apparent  in  the  earlier  operations,  but  was  distinctly 
claimed  ils  the  final  aim  by  Dr.  W.  W.  Codman,  of  Boston,  in  an 
article  published  in  the  Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  in 
1850;  since  which  time  this  end  has  been  steadily  held  in  view  by 
those  who  iiave  attempted  the  operation  of  capping. 

A  system  of  treatment  of  teeth  with  endangered  but  not  exposed 
pulps  was  practiced  as  early  a.s  1846,  and,  more  recently,  has  been 
the  subject  of  much  careful  investigation  and  practice. 

ANAESTHETICS. 

Strictly  speaking,  this  term  denotes  those  substances  which  produce 
insensibility  to  pain,  and  tl)erefore  includes  all  pain-obtimders.  But 
the  word  has  come  to  imply  only  such  agents  as  are  inhaled  in  the 
form  of  "vapors  or  gases  and  pass  with  the  blood  to  the  nervous 
centres  on  which  their  action  is  exerted."*  Therefore,  any  other 
than  these  forms  of  anaesthetic  agents  will  be  treated  under  the  head 
"Materia  Jfedica,"  with  the  exception  of  that  process  denominated 
"local  antesthesia,"  which  cannot  be  thus  classified;  therefore,  from 
its  not  being  of  sufficient  importance  to  demand  a  chapter  by  itself, 
it  also  is  iiLserted  under  the  pi'esent  heading. 

The  principal  anajsthetics  which  are  employed  are  nitrous  oxide 
gas  and  the  vapors  of  the  ethcrsf  and  chloroform.  .  To  these  may  be 
added,  as  late  discoveries,  bichloride  of  methylene  and  tetrachloride  of 

*  Dunglison. 

t  r.  liiis  seemed  proprr  not  to  spooify  in  this  examination  the  different  designa- 
tinn?  given  to  varieties  of  this  substance,  as  sutphuric,  muriatic,  etc. 


OPERATIVE    DENTISTRY.  79 

carbon.  All  of  these  have  received  a  more  oi*  less  extended  employ- 
ment in  dentistry,  and  the  world  owes  the  })ractioal  application  of 
the  anajsthetic  effects  of  the  first  two  to  dental  practitioners. 

Considered  in  the  order  of  their  introduction  as  pain-destroying 
agents,  the  first  to  be  treated  of  is — 

Nitrous  Oxide,  or  Protoxide  of  Nitrogen. — This  gas,  as  such,  was  dis- 
covered by  Priestley  in  1 776.  Its  exhilarant  and  ana?sthetic  properties 
were  first  noticed  in  1800  by  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  who,  however, 
appears  not  to  have  been  aware  of  the  great  value  of  that  property 
to  surgery,  for  he  did  no  more  than  suggest  that,  "  as  nitrous  oxide 
in  its  extensive  operations  appears  capable  of  destroying  physical 
pain,  it  may  probably  be  used  with  advantage  during  surgical  opera- 
tions in  which  no  great  effusion  of  blood  takes  place."*  The  savants 
of  the  whole  time  between  1800  and  1844  appear  to  have  been  equally 
regardless  of  that  value ;  for,  although  nitrous  oxide  continued  to  be 
exhibited,  experimentally  and  as  a  diversion,  throughout  the  civilized 
world  during  that  time,  not  one  of  them  made  any  practical  applica- 
tion of  its  most  important  pro})erty. 

On  the  evening  of  December  10th,  1844,  Dr.  Horace  Wells,  a 
practicing  dentist  of  Hartford,  Conn.,  attended  in  that  city  a  chemi- 
cal lecture  by  Mr.  G.  Q.  Colton,  during  or  after  which  the  lecturer 
administered  to  ISIr.  Samuel  A.  Coolcy,  and  others,  the  nitrous  oxide 
gas.  Mr.  Cooley,  on  being  brought  under  its  influence,  became  un- 
usually excited,  and,  during  his  consequent  activity,  sustained  severe 
bruisas ;  of  which  fact  he  \yas  unconscious  until  after  recovery  from 
the  effects  of  the  gas.  His  asseverations  of  want  of  knowledge  of  any 
pain,  while  in  the  unconscious  condition,  took  strong  hold  on  the 
mind  of  Dr.  Wells,  and  he  immediately  expressed  his  belief  that  teeth 
could  be  painlessly  extracted  during  the  inhalation  of  this  agent.  So 
strongly  was  he  thus  impressed,  that  the  next  day  he  requested  Mr. 
Colton  to  provide  some  of  the  gas  for  him,  which  he  took  himself,  hold- 
ing the  bag  in  his  lap,  and,  while  under  its  influence,  underwent  the 
extraction  of  a  molar  tooth  at  the  hands  of  Dr.  John  M.  Riggs,  a  fellow- 
dentist  of  Hartford.  Upon  his  recovery,  Wells  exclaimed,  in  high 
glee,  "J.  new  era  in  tooth-pulling!^^     The  exclamation  was  prophetic. 

So  elated  were  Drs.  Wells  and  Riggs  at  the  success  of  their  experi- 
ment that  they  immediately  turned  their  attention  to  the  extraction 
of  teeth  by  the  aid  of  this  agent,  and  continued  to  devote  themselves, 
in  conjunction,  to  this  subject  for  several  weeks  almost  exclusively. 

*  Davy's  Chemical  and  Philosophical  Researches,  p.  556. 


80  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

Dr.  Wells  used  the  gafe  freely  during  the  whole  time  of  his  dental 
practice,  and  Dr.  Kiggs  employed  it  constantly  "as  people  demanded 
it,  which  they  ordinarily  did,"  until  1847,  when  he  began  to  employ 
chloroform  in  its  stead. 

AVells,  however,  was  not  content  to  demonstrate  the  availability  of 
nitrous  oxide  as  an  anaesthetic  iii  dentistry  alone,  but  carried  it  into 
general  surgery.  The  first  recorded  case  of  this  character  occurred 
on  the  17th  of  August,  1847,  being  the  extirpation  of  a  large  scir- 
rhous growth  l)y  E.  E.  Marcy,  ]M.D.,  then  of  Hartford,  The  case 
is  reported  at  length  in  the  Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Joiamal, 
September  1st,  1847.  The  gas  was  administered  by  Dr.  AVells,  and 
its  operation  was  entirely  satisfactory.  The  second  case  ^\'as  amputa- 
tion of  the  thigh,  occurring  1st  January,  1848 ;  the  operator,  Dr.  P. 
W.  Ellsworth,  and  the  gas  given  by  Dr.  AVells.  This  case  is  also 
reported  in  the  above  periodical,  vol.  xxvii.  p.  498.  The  last  we 
shall  mention  was  the  removal  of  a  fatty  tumor  from  the  shoulder, 
at  Hartford,  Januar}'  4th,  1848  ;  S.  B.  Beresford,  M.D.,  the  operator, 
and  the  gas  given,  as  befr)re,  by  Horace  Wells.  This  was  only 
twenty  days  before  Wells's  death. 

Almost  immediately  upon  Wells's  discovery,  the  use  of  the  gas  be- 
came quite  general  with  the  Hartford  dentists.  John  B.  Terry  (after- 
ward Dr.AA'ells's  associate  in  practice),  John  Braddock,and  E.  E.  Crow- 
foot, all  dentists  of  that  city,  used  the  agent  between  the  time  when 
Wells  brought  it  to  notice  and  the  30th  of  September,  1846,  a  date 
which  will  be  presently  noticed  in  connection  with  the  subject  of  ether. 

A  short  time  after  his  discovery.  Dr.  Wells  visited  Boston  in  order 
to  bring  it  before  the  medical  men  of  that  city.  Calling  on  Pro- 
fessor AVarren,  of  the  Harvard  ^Medical  College,  he  comnumicated 
the  facts  to  him,  and  was  referred  to  the  students  lor  examinatioUj  be- 
fore whom  he  administered  the  gas  to  a  patient  who  desired  a  tooth 
drawn  ;  but,  probably  from  the  bag  containing  the  agent  being  M'ith- 
drawn  too  soon,  the  patient  made  some  noise  during  the  oj^eration, 
although  he  afterward  asserted  that  he  had  not  felt  pain.  From 
this  unfortunate  circumstance,  the  majority  present  thought  the  ex- 
periment a  failure;  though  many  considered  that  complete  anaesthesia 
had  been  produced,  and  afterward  made  oath  or  published  state- 
ments to  that  effect.  Of  these  may  be  mentioned  Wm.  M.  Cornell,* 
Mason  M.  Miles,t  and  C.  A.  Taft.| 

*  Medical  and  Surgical  Reporter,  May  21st,  1864. 

t  Ibid.,  September  20th,  1864. 

X  Deposition,  Smith's  Anaesthesia,  p.  94. 


OPERATIVE    DENTISTRY.  81 

While  in  Boston,  at  this  time,  and  previous  to  liis  experiment  at 
the  Harvard  school,  Dr.  Wells  called  on  Dr.  Charles  T.  Jackson  and 
Dr.  Wm.  T.  G.  JNIorton,  the  latter  an  old  pupil  and  partner  of  his, 
and  communicated  his  discovery  to  them.  This,  it  will  be  remembered, 
occurred  in  December,  1844.  These  gentlemen  "  expressed  them- 
selves in  the  disbelief  that  surgical  operations  could  be  performed 
without  pain,  both  admitting  that  the*  modus  operandi  was  entirely- 
new  to  them."  *  The  fact  of  this  visit,  at  the  date  and  for  the  pur- 
poses alleged,  is  admitted  by  INIorton  in  his  subsequent  memoir  to  the 
French  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  on  the  subject  of  the  discovery 
of  the  anaesthetic  effects  of  sulphuric  ether. 

After  the  discovery  was  made.  Wells  had  frequent  interviews  with 
Morton  on  the  subject,  and  the  latter  requested  instructions  in  the 
preparation  of  the  gas,  as  he  wished  to  try  it  in  Boston.  Probably 
aware  of  the  danger,  to  a  non-chemist,  of  preparing  ni//-/c  oxide  in 
place  of  mtrous  oxide,  Wells  advised  Morton  to  go  to  Dr.  Jackson,  in 
Boston,  who  was  a  chemist  and  could  prepare  the  gas  properly.  This 
fact  is  susceptible  of  abundant  proof. 

Although  nitrous  oxide,  in  Wells's  hands,  had  been  successful  in 
its  operations,  yet  the  facts  of  its  bulk  and  difficulty  of  preparation 
were  objections  to  its  use  which  he  early  endeavored  to  obviate. 
Any  experiments  to  this  end  would  •  naturally  first  take  the  direction 
of  eiForts  to  replace  the  objectionable  material  by  one  less  so.  Such 
an  one  was  thought  of  in  the  substance  sulphuric  ether.  This  article 
had  long  been  known  in  chemistry  as  producing  effects  generally 
similar  to  those  of  nitrous  oxide,  and  Wells  accordingly  gave  it  sev- 
•  eral  trials,  one  in  1845,  and  one  in  1848,  but  then  decided  not  to  use 
it.  The  circumstances  of  the  last  case  are  made  apparent  in  the  fol- 
lowing extract  of  a  deposition  made  by  Bishop  Brownell,  the  person 
mentioned  being  his  daughter.  "A  few  weeks  afterwardf  she  had 
three  more  teeth  extracted  while  under  the  influence  of  ether,  and 
with  little  appearance  of  suffering,  though  she  thought  it  less  genial 
in  its  effiicts  than  the  nitrous  oxide  gas,  .  .  .  ."|  In  1845  ether  was 
administered  by  Wells  to  John  G.  Wells,  who  said  of  it,  "  The  ether 
was  unpleasant  in  its  effects,  though  the  tooth  was  extracted  without 
pain.     I  therefore  advised  my  friends  not  to  use  it,  but  rather  the 


*  Pamphlet  published  by  Dr.  Wells  in   1847.     Also,  Modern  Anaesthesia,  by 
Trumiin  Smith,  p.  57. 

f  After  another  extraction  while  under  the  effects  of  nitrous  oxide. 
J  Modern  Anaesthesia,  p.  G7. 

7 


82  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

exhilarating  gas."*  This  trial  of  ether  by  Wells  was  in  consequence 
of  a  previous  experiment  with  this  agent,  in  1844,  thus  related  by 
E.  E.  :Marcy,  :M.D.  : 

''  Knowing  that  the  inhalation  of  sulphuric  ether  vapor  produced 
.similar  eifects  to  those  of  the  gas,  ...  I  suggested  to  Dr.  Wells 
its  employment,  telling  him  at  the  same  time  that  I  would  pre- 
pare some  ether  and  furnish  him  with  some  of  it  to  administer,  and 
also  make  a  trial  of  it  myself,  in  a  surgical  case  Avhich  I  expected  to 
have  in  a  few  days.  This  conversation  took  place  in  Dr.  Wells's 
office  at  the  time  the  tooth  was  extracted  from  Mr.  Goodrich  (De- 
cember, 1844).  Accordingly,  within  two  or  three  days  after  that 
event  I  administered  the  vapor  of  rectified  sulphuric  ether  in  my 
office  to  the  person  alluded  to  in  my  conversation  with  Dr.  Wells, 
....  and  cut  from  his  head  an  encysted  tumor  of  about  the  size  of 
an  English  walnut.  Dr.  Wells  came  in  during  the  operation,  and 
sufficiently  early  to  form  an  opinion  upon  the  subject.  It  was  en- 
tirely successful,  and  conclusively  proved  to  Dr.  Wells  and  myself 
the  anaesthetic  properties  of  ether  vapor."t 

Sufficient  seems  to  have  been  here  advanced  to  prove  the  following 
positions: 

That  Horace  Wells  successfully  produced  anaesthesia  with  nitrous 
oxide,  and  performed  operations  on  subjects  placed  in  that  condition, 
as  early  as  September,  1844. 

That  he  publicly  exhibited  the  anaesthetic  effects  of  that  agent,  and 
that  these  effects  were  generally  known  in  Hartford,  and  among  the 
medical  profession  in  Boston,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  same  year. 

That,  among  others  at  this  time,  Drs.  C.  T.  Jackson  and  Wm. 
T.  G.  ^lorton  were  informed,  and  one  at  least  (Morton)  knew  per- 
sonally of  such  effects. 

That  anaesthesia  by  nitrous  oxide  continued  to  be  produced,  from 
the  time  of  its  discovery  until  almost  the  day  of  his  death,  hy  Dr. 
Wells. 

That  ether  was  ased  by  Wells  personally,  for  producing  anaesthesia, 
in  1845. 

These  points  will  be  again  referred  to  in  the  further  examination 
of  this  subject. 

Ether.— On  the  30th  of  September,  1846,  Wm.  T.  G.  Morton  (to 

*  Modern  Anaesthesia,  p.  53.  f  Ibid.,  p.  54. 


OPERATIVE   DENTISTRY.  83 

whom  we  have  already  referred)  called  on  Dr.  C.  T.  Jackson,  "  with 
an  india-rubber  bag  in  his  hands ;"  as  to  the  proposed  use  of  whicih, 
when  questioned  by  Dr.^  Jackson,  he  answered  evasively.  "  There 
was  then  some  conversation  about  the  use  of  exhilarating  gas.  .  .  . 
Morton  asked  Jackson  if  he  (Morton)  could  make  it.  Jackson  told 
him  he  could  not  succeed  without  apparatus,  .  .  .  and  that  if  he 
undertook  to  make  it  he  would  get  mfric  oxide  instead  of  nUrous 
oxide.  Morton  asked  Dr.  Jackson  if  he  would  not  prepare  some  for 
him.  This  Dr.  Jackson  declined,  on  account  of  his  business.  .  .  . 
As  he  (Morton)  was  going.  Dr.  Jackson  told  him  that  he  coidd  tell 
him  something  that  would  make  his  patients  insensible.  Morton 
asked  him  what  it  was.  Dr.  Jackson  told  him  to  go  to  Burnett's 
and  get  some  pure  sulphuric  ether  and  pour  it  on  a  handkerchief, 
and  put  it  to  the  patient's  mouth  and  let  her  inhale  it.  .  .  .  From 
Morton's  questions  about  the  ether,  I  am  satisfied  he  knew  nothing 
about  its  properties  or  nature.  .  .  .  The  next  day  after  the  above 
conversation  Morton  came  into  the  office  and  told  Dr.  Jackson  that 
the  ether  had  worked  nicely, — that  the  patient  suffered  no  pain."  * 

After  having  had  the  benefit  of  Dr.  Jackson's  knowledge,  as 
above,  INIorton  procured  the  ether,  and  administered  it,  on  the  even- 
ing of  the  30th,  in  the  presence  of  Dr.  G.  G.  Hayden,  to  Eben  Frost, 
from  whose  jaw  a  tooth  was  extracted,  painlessly,  while  under  its 
influence.  Morton  subsequently  remarks,  in  his  memoir  to  the 
Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  at  Paris,  that  he  "  considers  this  to 
be  the  first  demonstration  of  this  new  fact  in  science."  AVe  have 
already  seen  how  new  it  really  was  at  that  time. 

Unlike  Wells,  Morton  appears  to  have  had  a  ready  eye  to  the 
pecuniary  value  of  anaesthesia;  for  the  next  day  (September  31st) 
he  went  to  a  patent  lawyer  for  the  purpose  of  patenting  his  "  dis- 
covery." The  inquiries  of  the  lawyer  disclosed  the  fact  that  Jacsk- 
son  was  as  intimately  concerned  in  the  matter  as  Morton ;  and  he 
accordingly  told  the  latter  that  both  must  join  in  the  application  for 
a  patent  to  make  it  valid.  At  iirst  Jackson  objected  to  this,  on  the 
ground  that  he  might  thereby  expose  himself  to  the  censure  of  the 
Massachusetts  Medical  Society;  but  finally  his  objections  were  re- 
moved by  th^;  drawing  up  of  an  assignment  on  his  part  to  Morton, 
which  is  partly  as  follows : 

"  Whereas  I,  Charles  T.  Jackson,  of  Boston,  in  the  State  of  Mas- 


*  ExtrjK-ts  from   the  deposition  of  Dr.  Jiimes   Mclntyre,  quoted   in  Smith's 
Modern  Anaesthosia,  p.  G'J. 


84  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

sachusetts,  chemist,  have,  in  conjunction  with  Wm.  T.  G.  ^lorton,  of 
said  city,  dentist,  invented  or  discovered  a  new  and  useful  improve- 
ment in  surgical  operations  on  animals,  whereby  we  are  enabled  to 
accomplish  many,  if  not  all,  operations  on  anmials,  such  as  are 
usually  attended  with  more  or  less  pain  and  suffering,  without  any 
or  very  little  pain  or  muscular  action  to  persons  who  undergo  the 
same,  and  whereas  the  said  ^Morton  is  desirous  of  procuring  a  patent 
for  the  same,  and  whereas  /  am  desirous  of  benefiting  him,  and  not  to 
be  interested  in  any  patent,  I  have  therefore,  in  consideration  of  one 
dollar,  .  .  .  assigned  ....  (to  Morton)  all  my  right,  title,  and 
interest  ....  in  the  said  invention  and  discovery,"  etc.;  also  further 
declaring  that  he  (Jackson)  had  that  day  signed  and  executed  the 
specifications,  "in  conjunction  with"  ]\lorton,  "for  the  purpose  of  en- 
abling him  to  obtain  a  patent  thereon,"  etc.  This  paper  is  dated  the 
27th  October,  1846.* 

The  application  for  letters  patent,  with  the  assignment,  was  ac- 
cordingly forwarded  to  AVashington,  and  the  patent  obtained,  dated 
November  12th,  1846.  In  view  of  after-complications,  it  will  be  well 
to  note  the  fact  of  the  conjunction  of  Jackson  and  Morton  in  obtain- 
ing it,  as  shown  by  extracts  from  the  patent, f — some  portions  of  which 
were  entirely  omitted  in  the  presentation  of  this  document  before  the 
cono-ressional  committee  on  the  "  Morton  claim,"  which  will  be  here- 
after  noted. 

As  has  been  seen  by  the  "  assignment"  of  Jackson's  interest  to 
Morton,  he  was  "desirous  of  benefiting  him  (Morton),  and  not  to  be 
interested  in  any  patent."     Nevertheless,  Jackson  took  from  ]Morton 


*  Modern  AnaBStliosia,  p.  21. 

f  "  Be  it  known  tliat  we, .diaries  T.  Jackson  and  ^Vni.  T.  G.  Morton,  of  Boston, 
in  the  county  of  Suffolk  and  State  of  Massacliusetts,  have  invented  or  discov- 
ered a  new  and  useful  iniprovoment  in  surgical  operations  on  animals,  ....  and 
wp  do  horeb}' declare  that  the  following  is  a  full  and  exact  description  of  our  said 
invention  or  discovery  :  It  is  well  known  to  chc'nii>ts  that  when  alcohol  is  sub- 
mitted to  distillation  with  certain  acids,  peculiar  compounds  termed  ethers 
are  ftirmed.  ...  It  has  also  been  known  that  the  vapors  of  some,  if  not  all, 
of  these  chemical  distillations  ....  when  breathed  ....  into  the  lungs  of  an 
animal,  have  yiroduced  a  peculiar  efl'cct  upon  its  nervous  system  ....  anal- 
ogt>u3  to  what  is  usually  termed  into.\ication  ....  What  we  claim  as  our  in- 
vention is  the  hereinbefore  described  means  by  which  we  are  enabled  to  effect 
the  above  highly  important  improvement  in  surgical  operatitms,  viz.:  by  com- 
bining therewith  the  application  of  ether,  or  the  vapor  thereof,  substantially  as 
above  specified.  In  testimony  whereof  we  have  hereunto  set  our  signatures, 
this  27th  day  of  October,  a.d.  1840.  (Signed)  Charles  T.  Jackson,  Wm.  T. 
G.  Morton.     Witness,  R.  M.  Eddy,  W.  U.  Leighton.  " 


OPERATIVE   DENTISTRY.  85 

at  the  same  time  liis  bond,  obligating  him  to  pay  over  to  Jackson  ten 
per  cent,  of  the  proceeds  of  the  patent  for  his  interest  in  it,  and 
subsequently  by  his  counsel  demanded  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  the 
profits,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  which  Morton  refused  to  concede. 

But  another  fact  regarding  the  declared  conjunction  of  Morton 
must  now  be  stated;  of  which  nothing  but  a  desire  for  historical 
.truth  and  accuracy  will  warrant  the  reproduction.  "A  few  days 
after  the  extraction  of  Mr.  Frost's  tooth,  he  (J.)  drew  up  a  formal 
paper,  setting  forth  the  nature  and  particulars  of  this  pretended  dis- 
covery, and  claiming  it  to  liave  been  exclusively  his  own;  and  this  paper, 
sealed  up,  he  forthwith  forwarded  to  a  friend  in  Paris,  and  directed 
him  to  lodge  it  in  the  archives  of  the  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences 
there,  to  remain  unopened  until  he  should  give  further  directions  on 

the  subject Subsequently  (December  1st,  1846),  the  doctor 

addressed  his  friend  another  letter,  directing  his  first  communication 
to  be  opened  and  its  contents  communicated  to  the  Academy."  * 

At  the  first  session  of  the  Thirty-second  Congress  (December, 
1851),  Morton  presented  a  memorial  to  the  House,  asserting  his 
claims  to  the  discovery  of  auoesihesia,  and  praying  for  an  appropria- 
tion in  his  behalf.  This  was  referred  to  a  committee,  of  which  Wm. 
H.  Bissell,  afterward  Governor  of  Illinois,  Avas  chairman.  Before 
this  committee  Jackson  and  IMorton  ajipeared  as  rival  claimants. 
Their  conjunction  had  been  destroyed  upon  the  receipt,  by  Morton, 
of  news  from  Paris.  Wells  had  been  some  years  dead,  and  his  wife 
and  a  son  of  tender  years  were  too  poor  to  employ  counsel  or  enter 
upon  the  question  of  priority  in  his  behalf;  and  it  may  be  judged 
that  the  other  claimants  would  be  interested  in  keeping  from  the 
committee  any  proofs  of  Wells's  use  of  nitrous  oxide.  But  the 
committee  did  obtain  a  partial  and  obscure  account  of  his  experi- 
ments ;  which  account  was  so  treated  by  the  opposing  side,  that  the 
chairman,  in  his  report,  was  led  to  conclude  that  Wells  had  entirely 
failed  in  his  efforts,  and  that  he  had  abandoned  his  discovery,  on 
accoiuit  of  such  failure,  long  before  his  death  !  We  have  already 
learned  that  the  last  recorded  case  of  administration  of  the  nitrous 
oxide  by  A¥ells  occurred  only  twenty  days  before  he  died. 

In  the  course  of  an  examination  before  the  congressional  committee, 
Dr.  Jackson  made  some  very  extraordinary  assertions ;  not  the  leiLst 
of  which  was,  his  statement  that  nitrous  oxide  would  not  produce 
anaesthesia, — in  fact,  that  it  "possessed  no  ana^thetic  properties"  ! 

*  Modern  Aiia;sthcsia,  p.  25. 


86  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAN   DENTISTRY. 

Tliis  Jackson  claimed  to  liave  reduced  to  a  certainty  "by  oft-repeated 
experiments."  He  also  claimed  to  have  discovered  the  anaesthetic 
effects  of  the  vapor  of  sulphuric  ether  as  far  bac4v  as  1842,  through 
inhaling  it  as  a  measure  of  relief  from  the  dangerous  results  of  an 
accidental  inhalation  of  chlorine  gas.  But  there  is  no  evidence  that 
he  mentioned  the  discovery  to  any  one  before  1846. 

The  House  committee  were  divided  on  the  claims  of-  Morton  and 
Jackson.  The  chairman  drew  up  a  report,  but  did  not  present  it. 
Morton  obtained  this  report,  had  copies  printed,  and  went  with  it . 
(unknown  to  the  other  claimant)  before  the  Senate  Committee  on 
jNIilitary  Affairs,  and  induced  them,  in  some  unexplained  manner,  to 
propose  an  amendment  of  the  army  appropriation  bill,  awarding  to 
Morton  one  hundred  thousand  dollars  !  But  this  appropriation  was 
rejected  by  the  Senate  by  a  vote  of  twenty-eight  to  seventeen, 

Morton,  however,  was  not  daunted ;  and,  somewhat  altering  the 
form  of  his  application,  renewed  it  at  the  short  session  of  the  same 
Congress  again  before  the  Senate,  where  it  Svas  passed  (26  to  23), 
failed  in  the  House,  was  again  passed  in  the  Senate,  and  again  failed 
in  the  House. 

Upon  the  convening  of  the  Thirty-seventh  Congress  (1862),  Morton 
again  pressed  his  claims ;  and  a  very  voluminous  report  was  issued 
upon  the  subject  by  the  Hon.  Henry  Wilson,  chairman  of  the  Senate 
Committee  on  Military  Affairs.  That  report  took  ground  in  favor 
of  Morton,  but  recommended  no  appropriation  for  him.  In  1864, 
Representative  Hooper  introduced  a  resolution  of  inquiry  into  the 
matter,  in  the  House  Committee  of  Ways  and  ]Means.  Here  Morton 
again  failed,  and  finally ;  at  least  as  regards  tlie  interference  of 
Congress  in  his  behalf. 

Upon  the  first  attempt  of  jMorton  to  introduce  the  vapor  of  ether 
into  surgery,  it  was  met  by  the  older  branch  of  the  profession  with 
open  arms;  but  dentistry  was  more  conservative.  Dr.  J.  F.  B. 
Flagg,  of  Philadelphia,  was  one  of  the  first  dentists  of  note  to  iden- 
tify himself  with  aiuesthesia,  and  soon  announced  that  Lethcon  (as 
Morton  had  empirically  termed  it)  was  nothing  but  sulphuric  ether. 
He  refused  to  recognize  the  control  of  this  substance  by  patent,  as, 
in  fact,  became  the  case  everywhere.  But  most  others  were  not  so 
conservative  as  he,  and  INIorton,  having  appealed  to  the  generosity 
of  the  profession,  was  munificently  rewarded.  Various  medical  and 
surgical  a'^sociations  and  institutions,  and  several  individuals,  made 
many  contributions  to  swell  the  total  "  recognition"  of  the  claims 
and  merit  of  the  so-called  "  discoverer."     It  will  be  needless  to  enu- 


OPERATIVE   DENTISTRY.  87 

merate  these ;  suffice  it  to  say  that  the  Hon.  Truman  Smith,  in  his 
work  "  IModern  Anaesthesia,"  estimates  the  total  received  by  IVIorton 
up  to  1867  as  fully  one  hundred  and  twenty-Jive  thousand  dollars, 
including  $50,000  loaned  Morton,  or  invested  in  his  Congressional 
schemes,  by  one  William  S.  Tuckerman.  Of  this  $50,000,  and  the 
uses  it  was  put  to,  there  is  a  rather  curious  undcr-history,  which, 
however,  doas  not  concern  the  present  consideration  of  the  question. 

The  Academy  of  Sciences  of  the  Institute  of  France  awarded  to 
Jackson  a  prize  of  2500  francs  "  for  his  observation  and  experiments 
upon  the  ansesthetic  effects  produced  by  the  inhalation  of  ether," 
and  to  Morton  another  of  like  amount  "  for  having  introduced  this 
method  into  surgical  practice  after  the  indications  of  jNIr.  Jackson."* 
]\Iorton's  patent,  as  has  been  said,  was  at  once  repudiated  by  sev- 
eral,— among  the  rest  the  New  York  Eye  Infirmary,  which  was  sued 
by  Morton  for  having  used  "  his"  agent  without  permission  of  the 
patentee.  The  case  was  quickly  decided  by  the  ruling  of  the  court 
that  the  patent  was  null  and  void,  as  the  discovery  was  not  within 
the  scope  of  the  patent  laws.f  But,  as  above  shown,  Morton  reaped 
a  rich  reward  for  the  part  he  had  taken  in  the  introduction  of  anaes- 
thesia, without  much  or  necessary  recourse  to  any  benefits  to  be  de- 
rived from  his  patent.  While  Morton  and  Jackson  thus  filled  the 
world's  eye.  Wells  went,  unrewarded  and  almost  unknown,  to  his 
grave,  leaving  his  wife  and  child  penniless.  When  the  question  of 
Congressional  interference  was  raised,  they  were  unable  to  take  part 
in  its  prosecution,  and  for  years  AYells's  discovery  was  allowed  to  lie 
idle  and  unimproved,  while  ether  and  chloroform  ran  their  course. 
This  was  somewhat  short-lived,  so  far  as  the  dental  profession  was 
concerned.  A  few  deaths  from  chloroform  caused  its  excessive  use 
to  be  suddenly  arrested ;  and,  at  this  juncture,  nitrous  oxide  again 
appeared  on  the  scene,  in  the  hands,  curiously  enough,  of  the  very 
man  who  had  furnished  it  for  "  the  first  genuine  anaesthetic  operation 
on  earth." 

Mr.  G.  Q.  Colton,  having  assisted  Wells  in  1844,  as  related,  resumed 
his  lectures,  and  continued  them  down  to  1863.  Being  neither  a 
dentist  nor  a  surgeon,  he  had  no  occasion  to  practice  aufestliesia,  as 
such ;  but  about  the  first  of  June,  1863,  being  then  in  New  Haven, 
but  a  few  miles  from  Hartford,  where  Wells's  first  experiment  was 
performed,  he  was  applied  to  by  Dr.  Joseph  H.  Smith,  a  dentist,  to 

*  New  York  Dontnl  Rpconler,  vol.  iv.  p.  197. 
f  Jlodcrn  Anaesthosia,  p.  31. 


88  HISTORY    or    AMERICAX    DENTISTRY. 

give  the  gas  in  one  of"  liis  operations;  and,  as  in  the  primary  case, 
Dr.  Smith  was  so  elated  with  the  effects  of  the  agent  that  he  at  once 
ceased  the  use  of  etlier  and  began  to  employ  nitrous  oxide.  In  July^ 
1863,  Mr.  Colton  established  the  Chiton  Dental  Association  in  New 
York,  for  the  anaesthetic  use  of  this  agent;  and  from  that  day  its 
employment  has  steadily  increa.sed  in  dentistry',  to  the  almost  utter 
exclusion  of  other  anaisthetics. 

Simultaneously  with  this  revival,  the  claims  of  Horace  Wells  to 
the  discovery  of  anaesthesia  again  came  to  notice ;  and  this  time  to 
some  effect.  It  is  true  that  the  IjCgislaturc  of  Connecticut,  his  native 
State,  awarded  to  Wells  in  1847  a  vote  of  thanks  for  his  discovery 
of  the  use  of  "nitrons  oxide  gas  or  ether  in  surgical  operations^ 
But  this  was  almost  the  only  mark  of  recognition  he  received  until 
the  renewal  of  his  methods  and  agent  by  Dr.  Smith  and  Mr. 
ColtOD. 

The  American  Dental  Association,  in  1864,  passed  resolutions  de- 
claring, among  other  things,  "  that  to  Horace  Wells,  of  Hartford, 
Conn,  (now  deceased),  belongs  the  credit  and  honor  of  the  introduc- 
tion of  anesthesia  in  the  United  States  of  America."*  In  1870,  the 
Hartford  Society  of  Dentists  inaugurated  a  movement  for  the  erection 
of  a  monument  to  his  memory  in  the  public  park  of  the  city.  To 
this  end  the  Connecticut  Legislature  appropriated  ,$5000,  and  the 
city  of  Hartford  $10,000.t  In  1872,  the  American  Dental  Associa- 
tion endorsed  an  effort  then  being  made  by  dental  and  medical  prac- 
titioners to  provide  a  "AVells  Testimonial  Fund"  for  the  benefit  of 
his  family.  In  1874,  the  dentists  of  London,  England,  forwarded 
to  Mrs.  Wells,  with  a  sum  of  money,  an  elegantly  engrossed  testimo- 
nial to  the  merits  of  her  former  liusband,  "  to  Avhom  the  world  is  in- 
debted, not  only  for  the  introduction  of  nitrous  oxide  as  an  anaesthetic, 
but  also  for  giving  that  impetus  to  the  study  of  anaesthesia  which  has 
resulted  in  the  introduction  of  ether,  chloroform,  and  various  other 
agents  for  effecting  that  object."| 

Chloroform  was  discovered  almost  simultaneously  by  Mr.  Samuel 
Guthrie,  of  Sackett's  Harbor,  New  York;  Soubeiran,  in  France;  and 
Liebig,  in  Germany;  in  the  years  1831-2.  Guthrie  erroneously 
supposed  his  discovery  to  be  the  well-known  Didch  liquid,  or  bichlo- 
ride of  ethylen  (which  it  closely  resembles),  and  consequently  called  it 

*  Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  vi.  p.  80.  |  Ibid.,  vol.  xii.  pp.  255,  483. 

X  Ibid.,  vol.  xvi.  p.  107. 


OPERATIVE    DENTISTRY.  89 

chloric  ether.  It  was  not  until  1835  that  its  composition  was  accu- 
rately determined  by  Dumas,  who  gave  it  its  name. 

Tiiis  substance  had  been  administered  by  inhalation,  for  pulmonary 
afFections,  previous  to  its  anaesthetic  effects  being  discovered  by  J. 
Y.  Simpson,  of  Edinburgh,  in  November,  1847,  during  his  search  for 
something  which  should  replace  the  ethers  for  the  same  object.  Its 
introduction  was  more  quickly  accomplished  than  that  of  any  other 
like  agent;  and,  for  a  time,  it  was  very  extensively  (and  somewhat 
indiscriminately)  used  in  dental  as  well  as  general  practice. 

Some,  however,  were  not  fully  satisfied  of  the  innocuousness  of  the 
new  agent,  and  an  alarm  was  sounded.  Shortly  afterward  the  first 
death  from  its  administration  occurred.  This  induced  greater  cau- 
tion ;  and  experience  soon  proved  that  chloroform  was  by  far  the 
most  dangerous  of  all  the  anaesthetics.  Upon  this  the  dental  profes- 
sion generally  ceased  using  it  anaesthetically,  and  substituted,  first, 
ether,  and  later,  nitrous  oxide.  Its  employment  in  dentistry,  how- 
ever, in  topical  applications,  as  a  solvent,  and  for  other  purposes,  is 
very  general ;  and  such  methods  of  employment  are  noted  in  this 
work  under  other  headings. 

Bichloride  of  Ilctlujlene  was  introduced  by  Dr.  B.  W.  Richardson, 
of  London,  in  1867.  This  agent  has  been  experimented  with  in 
dentistry  to  a  small  extent ;  but  its  cost,  and  the  general  superiority 
and  certain  safety  of  nitrous  oxide,  have  prevented  its  very  general 
employment. 

Tetrachloride  of  Carbon,  discovered  by  Rcgnault,  in  1839,  came 
into  notice  as  an  anaesthetic  agent  through  Prof.  Simpson,  in  Decem- 
ber, 1865. 

These  newer  anaesthetics  will  require  the  test  of  time  and  thorough 
experimentation  before  they  can  generally  compete  with  better  es- 
tablished agents  for  a  similar  purpose. 

Local  Ancesthesia  (so  called)  is  simi)ly  pain-obtunding  topical  appli- 
cations. The  principle  was  first  brought  to  notice  in  1850-1  by  Dr. 
H.  S.  Cliase,  then  of  Woodstock,  Vermont,  who  operated  crudely  on 
sensitive  dentine  by  dipping  a  lock  of  cotton  in  ether  and  placing  it 
in  the  cavity.* 

The  first  full  application  of  the  principle  was  by  Dr.  Branch,  of 
Illinois,  in  1855.     He  used  a  freezing  mixture  of  ice  and  salt,  placed 

*  Dental  News  Letter,  vol.  iv.  p.  23.  The  effect  was  arrived  at  by  the  evap- 
oration of  the  ether  producing  cold. 


90  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

in  a  proper  receptacle  and  applied  to  the  part  desired.  This  was 
used  to  some  extent,  but,  owing  as  much,  perhaps,  to  difficulties  in 
its  application  as  to  inherent  defects,  wa.s  finally  abandoned. 

Various  substances  which  are  susceptible  of  rapid  volatilization, 
thus  producing  intense  cold  at  the  point  where  they  are  applied,  have 
been  employed  to  this  end.  The  most  prominent  among  them  are 
rhigolene  and  ether,  and  the  most  general  manner  of  application  is 
that  introduced  by'  Dr.  B.  W.  Richardson,  of  London.  In  this 
the  fluid  is  su])plied  to  an  atomizer,  or  equivalent  apparatus,  by  which 
a  finely  comminuted  spray  of  the  liquid  is  forced  upon  the  part 
affected,  its  rapid  evaporation  producing  cold  of  a  benumbing  char- 
acter, an  eifect  which  is  hoAvever  only  temporary,  and  therefore  re- 
peated applications  must  be  made. 

Rhigolene  is  a  very  volatile  product  of  the  distillation  of  petro- 
leum, and  is  preferred  by  some  to  ether. 

Local  annesthesia,  by  cold  i)roduced  in  this  manner,  has  been  used 
with  great  advantage  in  minor  surgery,  particularly  dentistry,  but 
possesses  obvious  defects  in  practice,  which  have  prevented  its  general 
adoption. 

Electric  or  galvanic  anaesthesia  was  suggested  as  far  back  as  1851, 
by  Dr.  A.  Hill,  of  Connecticut.*  But  its  first  practical  application 
was  by  J.  B.  Francis,  of  Philadelphia,  in  1858.t  Its  appearance 
created  a  "furor"  not  alone  in  dentistry,  but  in  all  branches  of  the 
medical  art,  and  much  experiment  was  immediately  made  with  the 
fiiscinating  "lightning"  ansesthetic, — so,  however,  only  in  one  sense; 
for,  although  the  Franklin  Institute  awarded  the  "Scott's  Legacy" 
medal  and  premium  to  the  inventor,  and  men  of  very  considerable 
scientific  status  highly  recommended  the  new  process,  yet  its  popu- 
larity soon  waned,  it  being  found  very  uncertain  and  erratic  in  action, 
and  generally  unreliable,  in  fact  almost  useless,  from  these  causes. 

MATERIA   MEDICA. 

This  subject  is  so  intimately  interwoven,  as  regards  dentistry,  with 
general  medicine,  and  the  introduction  of  the  various  remedies  used 
in  dental  practice  has  been  so  gradual,  and  according  to  the  needs  or 
fancies  of  many  operators  widely  separated  from  each  other  by  loca- 
tion, and  having  very  sparingly  communicated  on  the  subject,  that 


*  New  York  Dental  Recorder,  vol.  vi.  p.  145. 

f  Aiiiericun  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  2d  Series,  vol.  viii.  p.  433. 


OPERATIVE    DENTISTRY.  91 

its  treatment  in  historical  form  is  extremely  difficult,  indeed,  strictly 
so  considered,  impossible.  To  the  introduction  of  every  remedy  there 
are  several  claimants,  amid  which  it  is  not  possible  to  establish  either 
priority  or  superior  value  or  excellence  of  modes  of  practice.  The 
treatment  of  this  subject  will  therefore  be  confined  to  a  consideration 
of  only  the  principal  therapeutic  agents  in  use,  or  which  have  been 
so,  only  such  facts  and  items  being  admitted  as  will  show  the  his- 
torical range  of  dental  materia  medica  in  American  dentistry. 

That  the  pharmaceutics  of  one  hundred  years  ago,  even  in  medi- 
cine, w^as  of  much  less  extent  than  now,  is  very  certain,  and  this  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  many  remedies  then  standard  have  passed  out 
of  practice,  and  are  at  this  time  obsolete.  If  this  wider  range  is  so 
well  marked  in  medicine,  it  is  very  much  more  so  in  dentistrs''. 
Healing  was  comparatively  slightly  considered  one  hundred  years 
ago  in  the  practice  of  what  was  then  a  mechanic  art  much  more  than 
a  profession.  This  will  be  evidenced  to  the  philologist  by  the  fact 
that  our  forefathers'  aspirations  were  almost  entirely  in  the  direction 
of  dental  surgery,  strictly  so  called,  whereas  the  present  generation 
might  more  properly  be  styled  one  of  dental  medicine.  This  change, 
and  the  minor  facts  connected  with  it,  will  be  more  fully  noticed  in 
another  chapter. 

Among  the  remedies  first  used  in  American  dentistry,  those  for 
the  obtunding  of  pain  (notably  in  odontalgia)  and  the  reduction  of 
inflammation  were  prominent.  For  the  first  of  these  objects,  opium 
in  some  of  its  forms  was  early  and  largely  employed.  Opiates  were 
sometimes  also  administered  internally  for  odontalgia.  A  form  of 
treatment  for  ''rheumatic  or  nervous  tootliache"  is  given  by  Ben- 
jamin James  (1814),*  as  follows:  "It  will  be  advisable  to  take 
cooling  purges,  to  keep  the  mouth  moistened  with  warm  decoction 
of  morshmallows,  comfrey  roots,  or  chamomile,  to  take  opium  with 
moderation,  or  to  bleed,  according  to  the  urgency  of  the  case.  .  .  ." 

In  speaking  of  diseases  arising  in  the  region  of  the  gum,  root,  or 
alveolus,  Flagg  (1822) f  mentions  as  remedies  "an  astringent  lotion 
of  tincture  of  Peruvian  bark  and  rosewater,  in  equal  quantities,  or  a 
decoction  of  marsh  rosemary,  in  the  proportion  of  one  ounce  of  the 
dried  root  to  a  pint  of  water."  These  remedies  are  intended  for 
home  application.  He  also  recommends  "cold  water  or  vinegar, 
cold  meal  poultices,  or  strong  irritating  tinctures  to  the  face,  and  a 
full  dose  of  Glauber  or  Rochelle  salts"  J  as  eiFectual  in  removing  the 

*  Loc.  cit.,  p.  44.  f  Loc.  cit.,  p.  47.  t  ^oc.  cit.,  p.  48. 


92.  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

pain.  For  tumors  of  the  gums  he  says,  "Tlie  speedy  removal  of  tlie 
tumor  (by  the  use  of  caustics,  the  lit^iiture,  or  the  knife)  is  the  only 
plan  of  treatment  on  which  we  can  reasonably  hope  for  success."* 

Fitch  (1829)  mentions!  as  astringents,  nutgall,  oak  bark,  myrtle 
bark,  Peruvian  bark,  gum  kino,  the  suljihates  of  copper,  of  alum, 
the  mineral  acids,  and  acetic  acid ;  as  stimulants,  nitrous  and  sul- 
phuric ether,  alcohol,  rum,  brandy,  the  oils  of  cloves,  cinnamon,  pep- 
permint, horse-mint,  tansy,  and  cajeput,  "the  root  of  the  pctevo'ia  al- 
Uacia,  called  the  guinea-hen  weed,"  also  the  bulbs  of  most  alliaceous 
plants,  including  the  "  common  hartwort  or  IcLserpitium  silex,  which 
has  long  been  celebrated  as  a  sialogogue  and  remedy  for  the  tootli- 
ache,"  camphor,  and  errhines ;  as  anodynes  and  narcotics,  opium, 
henbane,  the  leaves  of  the  thorn-apple  plant,  and  tobacco  in  extract, 
tincture,  or  fumigation.  As  caustics  he  notes,  caustic  potash,  nitric 
and  vitriolic  acids,  and  nitrate  of  silver.  He  also  gives  several  for- 
mulas, from  which  the  following  are  extracted : 

For  odontalgia. — 1.  "Pulvis  gall?e,  5ii ;  opium,  oss;  pulvis  cam- 
phors, ojss;  tinct.  daturae  stramonii,  q.  s.  to  reduce  the  substances  to 
pills."  2.  "  01.  cassiifi,  v  gt. ;  do.  cloves,  v  gt. ;  pulvis  gallaj,  q.  s. 
to  pill." 

Antiscorbutic  remedies. — 1.  Antiscorbutic  tincture — "Pulvis  gal- 
la,  5iii;  camphor,  3i;  best  port  wine,  ii  lbs.  Misce.  Let  stand 
in  a  warm  situation  three  days."  2.  "  Saturated  decoction  of  the 
cortex  qucrci,  ii  lbs.;  tinctura  thebaici,  51.     Mix." 

In  1830-1  X  we  have  records  of  several  formulas  then  in  use  by 
dentists.     Tlie  following  are  some  of  them  : 

Astringent  application  to  spongy  or  scorbutic  gums. — "  Into  a 
quart  of  port  wine  or  claret  i)ut  a  drachm  of  alum  and  another  of 
acorns;  a  drachm  and  a  half  of  galls,  and  half  a  handful  of  good 
day-dried  red  rose  leaves :  boil  them  down  to  half,  and  then  strain, 
and  dissolve  in  it  a  drachm  and  a  half  of  gum-Arabic  bruised  in 
small  pieces ;  and  with  this  liquor,  a  little  hot,  wash  the  teeth  and 
gums  daily." 

"  To  fasten  teeth :  gargle  with  honey-water  and  myrrh  ;  or,  add 
honey  and  myrrh  to  a  decoction  of  sage  leaves." 

For  the  treatment  of  aphthae  in  cases  of  thrush,  "borax,  one 
drachm  ;  honey,  one  ounce." 

As  the  single  proper  remedy  for  the  diseases  odontitis,  periostitis, 

*  Loc.  cit.,  J).  59.  f  Loc.  cit.,  p.  523,  et  seq. 

X  Economy  of  the  Tteth,  etc. 


OPERATIVE    DENTISTRY.  93 

exostosis  and  necrosis,  Spooner  (1836)*  recommends  extraction,  say- 
ing, "  tlie  various  applications  in  common  use,  at  best  are  only  pal- 
liating." He  declares  that  "  the  most  powerful  of  temporary  reme- 
dies" which  he  had  used  "  is  either  the  acetate  or  sulphate  of  morphia" 
introduced  on  a  lock  of  cotton  at  the  end  of  a  probe.  This  he  names 
as  superior  to  creasote,  then  lately  introduced.  He  contends  that  the 
only  effectual  cure  for  alveolar  abscess  is  "  the  extraction  of  the  dead 
teeth  or  fangs." 

Harris  (1839),t  in  treating  of  inflammation  of  the  periosteum,  ad- 
vised leeches  and  fomentations  of  the  face,  with  cataplasms  of  hyos- 
cyaraus,  mustard,  or  hot  salt  with  vinegar  and  laudanum.  He  used, 
in  cases  of  spongy  and  bleeding  gums,  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver, 
painted  upon  the  parts. 

Roasted  figs  and  bruised  raisins  were  early  used  in  the  treatment  of 
■periodonteal  inflammation,  being  applied  as  a  poidtice  to  the  gum. 
Among  the  astringents  were  solutions  of  some  of  the  salts  of  lead. 

With  this  meagre  mention  of  remedies  previous  to  about  1835,  the 
strictly  historical  portion  of  the  subject  is  passed,  it  seeming  more 
profitable  to  make  a  statement  of  the  principal  articles  comprising 
the  modern  materia  medica  than  to  attempt  fixing  their  dates  of  in- 
troduction. 

Common  Salt,  in  saturated  aqueous  solution,  is  often  all  that  may 
be  needed  to  check  bleeding  after  lancing  the  gums  or  extracting 
teeth.  A  weaker  aqueous  solution  is  sometimes  used  in  syringing 
the  cavity  of  an  absce&s.  Salt  is  the  antidote  for  poisoning,  by  ni- 
trate of  silver,  and  its  instant  application  in  cases  of  the  caustic  com- 
ing in  contact  with  parts  not  intended  to  be  touched,  may  prevent 
very  embarrassing  consequences. 

The  salts  of  morphia,  particularly  the  acetate  and  sulphate,  have 
long  been  in  use  as  among  the  most  popular  and  reliable  means  of 
relieving  the  intense  })ain  of  acute  pulpitis.  The  acetate  is  used  in 
aqueous  solution  with  carbolic  acid,  or  in  solution  with  deliquesced 
carbolic  acid.  These  salts  are  also  used,  in  combination  with  arse- 
nious  acid  and  some  menstruum,  to  form  a  paste  for  the  devitaliza- 
tion of  the  pulp.  In  those  cases  in  which  it  is  desirable  to  bridge 
over  an  interval  of  pain,  these  salts  are  sometimes  administered  inter- 
nally, in  the  usual  doses,  or  by  hypodermic  injections  of  their  clear 
solutions.  Resort  is  sometimes  had  to  these  solutions,  or  to  laudanum, 
in  local  applications  for  the  relief  of  pain. 

*  G;iicle  to  Soiiml  Teoth,  etc.  t  The  Dental  Art,  etc. 


94  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

Within  a  few  vcars  sulphate  of  quinia  has  obtained  a  place  in  the 
dental  materia  medioa,  being  claimed  to  be  almost  a  specific  in  perio- 
dontitis. This  agent  is  also  administered  in  cases  of  neuralgia,  par- 
ticularlv  those  characterised  by  regular  recurrence  of  pain  at  certain 
hours. 

The  saline  cathartics,  of  which  Epsom  salt  may  be  taken  as  the 
type,  are  efficient  aids  in  the  treatment  of  periodontitis  and  incipient 
alveolar  abscess. 

Perhaps  there  is  not,  in  the  range  of  dental  materia  medica,  a 
remedy  which  has  been  so  empirically  and  indiscriminately  employed 
as  crcasote.  In  past  years  its  range  of  indication  has  been  held  to  be 
hardly  more  limited  than  that  of  dental  disease.  Its  antiseptic  prop- 
erty renders  it  valuable  for  saturating  such  partially  decomposed  den- 
tine as  is  sometimes  allowed  to  remain  over  what  would  otherwise  be 
an  exposed  pulp.  It  is  also  much  used  for  wiping  out  the  canals  of 
pulpless  teeth.  It  has  been  largely  employed  for  the  relief  of  odon- 
talgia arising  from  an  exposed  pulp,  the  surface  of  which  is  changed 
to  an  eschar  by  its  caustic  qualities.  There  are,  however,  doubts 
about  the  deposition  of  secondary  dentine  from  a  pulp  so  treated ; 
and  many  practitioners  have  discarded  this  method  of  using  crea- 
sote,  on  account  of  this  and  other  physiological  objections  to  the 
material.* 

The  above  agent  has  been,  in  a  degree,  superseded  by  carbolic  acid. 
This  was  found  in  1834,  by  Runge,  in  coal  tar,  but  attracted  little 
attention  until  nearly  a  decade  later.  It  meets  many  of  the  indica- 
tions formerly  filled  by  creasote.  The  saturated  aqueous  solution  is 
applied  to  an  exposed  pulp  as  a  corrective  of  septic  influences,  and, 
in  conjunction  with  acetate  of  morphia,  to  relieve  pain.  It  also  forms 
a  valuable  cleansing  and  stimulating  dressing  for  abscesses  and  sup- 
purating surfaces,  as  it  is  claimed  that  zymotic,  sporadic,  and  parasitic 
organisms  cannot  live  in  its  presence,  and  that  fermentative  and  pu- 
trefactive changes  are  prevented  by  it.  The  deliquesced  acid  is  of 
some  value  as  an  obtunder  of  sensitiveness  in  dentine.  Its  use  as  a 
styptic  has  been  suggested,  from  the  fact  that  it  forms  with  albumen 
an  insoluble  carbolate. 

Camphor  is  used  by  some  to  disguise  the  odor  of  creasote.  A  sat- 
urated solution  of  camphor  in  chloroform  has  been  spoken  of  as  an 

*  The  employment  of  genuine  creasote  obviates  some  of  the  above  objections, 
^lost  of  lliat  now  sold  in  the  shops  as  creasote  is,  in  reality,  impure  carbolic  acid. 
Creasote  is  obtained  by  di.-tillation  from  wood  tar  or  crude  pyroligneous  acid. 
Carbolic  acid  comes  from  coal  tar. 


I 


4 


OPERATIVE   DENTISTRY.  95 

efficient  application  for  the  relief  of  pain  following  the  extraction  of 
a  tooth  affected  with  acute  abscess. 

Oil  of  Turpentine,  once  a  prominent  remedy  for  the  odontalgia  of 
pulpitis,  is  now  almost  out  of  use  for  that  purpose.  It  is  by  some 
combined  with  wax  to  form  a  salve-like  capping  for  exposed  pulps. 
The  application  of  this  covering  is  nearly  painless,  and  the  most 
gratifying  formations  of  secondary  dentine  have  been  shown  to  have 
taken  place  beneath  it. 

Aconite  ranks  among  the  most  efficient  remedies  for  the  relief  of 
pain  and  inflammation,  and  is  also  much  valued  for  aborting  the 
last  pathological  condition,  when  used  in  the  incipient  stages.  It 
is  especially  adapted  for  use  in  inflammations  and  neuralgias  of 
limited  extent  and  acute  character.  It  is  considered  to  act  particu- 
larly on  nerve-tissue,  either  when  applied  locally  or  administered 
systemically.  Facial  neuralgias  are  often  relieved  by  external  appli- 
cation of  some  of  its  stronger  preparations  over  the  course  of  the 
nerve  implicated. 

Calendula  is  applied  to  incised  and  lacerated  wounds,  tending  to 
relieve  pain,  prevent  inflammation,  and  produce  rapid  healing.  It  is 
not  now  officinal,  but  is  provided  both  as  tincture  and  as  fluid  extract. 

Tincture  of  Arnica  has  been  extensively  used  to  meet  the  same  indi- 
cations noted  for  calendula,  but  is  now  considered  to  be  of  much  less 
value.  It  has  even  been  shown  that  its  application  to  abraded  sur- 
faces is,  in  some  cases,  poisonous.* 

Arsenious  Acid.  During  the  last  forty  years  this  agent  has  been 
more  extensively  employed  than  any  other  for  the  devitalization  of 
pulps.  It  was  first  used  for  this  purpose  about  1834,  by  Dr.  John 
R.  Spooner,  of  Montreal,  and  published  to  the  profession  in  1836,  by 
his  brother  Shearjashub.f  In  this  countiy  it  has  generally  been 
employed  in  combination  with  some  drug  intended  to  lessen  the  pain 
of  its  action.  The  followino;  formula  is  believed  to  be  among:  the 
best : 

Acidi  arseniosi,  gr.  j  ; 

Morphia  acetatis,  gr.  ii  vel  iii ; 

Sol.  acidi  carbolici,  q.  s.  to  form  a  paste. 

Arsenious  acid  has  been  used  to  obtund  the  sensitiveness  of  den- 
tine ;  but  the  danger  to  the  pulp  by  this  method  is  such  that  it  is 
now  little  employed  for  that  purpose.     Indeed,  many  do  not  now 

*  Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  January  21st,  1875,  p.  01. 
f  Guide  to  Sound  Teeth,  etc.,  New  York,  1836,  p.  115. 


96  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

use  the  an;ont  at  all,  and  its  general  employment  is  much  less  than 
formerly. 

Nitrate  of  Silver  has  been  employed  for  numerous  purposes  in  oral 
medicine,  as  for  obtunding  sensitive  dentine  in  aqueous  solution  in 
aphthous  affections,  as  an  escharotic  in  solution  or  in  crystal,  as  a 
haemostatic,  and  in  other  directions ;  but  objections,  of  greater  or  less 
gravity,  hold  against  it  for  nearly  every  one  of  them.  The  discol- 
oration of  dentine  produced  by  it  forbids  its  use  on  surfaces  exposed 
to  view,  and  the  depth  of  its  action  endangers  the  pulp.  The  harsh- 
ness of  its  action  and  the  solubility  of  the  eschar  ojjerate  against  its 
styptic  employment. 

Lime  Wafer  is  astringent,  tonic,  and  antacid.  It  often  follows  the 
exhibition  of  acid  medicines  to  protect  the  teeth  from  their  corrosive 
effects,  and  in  its  use  as  a  tooth-wash  is  considered  one  of  the  best 
prophylactic  remedies  against  caries.  The  chemically  prepared  car- 
bonate is  also  a  valuable  antacid,  and  of  much  importance  in 
dentifrices. 

Chloride  of  Lime  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  bleaching  agents. 

Calcium  Sulphate  with  water  has  been  used  as  a  capping  for  exposed 
pulps. 

During  later  years  it  has  been  discovered  that  internal  administra- 
tion of  some  of  the  salts  of  lime  apparently  tends  to  greatly  improve 
the  texture  of  soft  and  poorly  organized  teeth.  To  this  end,  food 
rich  in  linie  salts  has  been  recommended,  and  has  seemed  in  some 
cases  to  produce  remarkable  results,  such  being  more  marked  in 
childhood  than  in  adult  life,  and  the  theory  claiming  the  best  time 
of  administration  to  be  during  uterine  life,  through  the  food  of  the 
mother.  The  principal  clement  sought  to  be  supplied  has  been  the 
phosphate  of  lime,  which  has  been  exhibited  in  many  forms ;  as,  the 
precipitated  phosphate  in  powder  or  solution,  Wiegand's  and  other 
syrups,  preparations  of  the  lactophosphate  and  the  hypophosphite, 
and  compound  solutions  of  the  hypophosphites  of  lime  and  soda. 

Good  results  are  claimed  to  have  been  obtained  from  the  use  of 
lactophosphate  of  lime  as  a  capping  for  exposed  pulps.  The  hypo- 
phosphite  has  been  suggested  for  the  same  purpose,  and  also  for 
bathing  cavities  after  excavation  and  before  filling  with  metals,  to 
prevent  subsequent  sensitiveness  to  thermal  changes. 

Bicarbonate  of  Soda  is  among  the  valuable  antacids  for  both  local 
and  systemic  exhibition.  It  is  used  in  aqueous  solution  as  a  mouth- 
wash in  acid  conditions  of  the  oral  secretions.  These  conditions  are 
also  comjjatcd  by  the  internal   administration  of  the  alkali.     This 


I 


OPERATIVE    DENTISTRY.  97 

agent  is  also  of  use  in  the  treatment  of  sensitive  dentine,  ranking 
among  the  milder  and  perfectly  safe  remedies.  Aqua  calcis  is  also 
used  for  the  same  purpose. 

The  solution  of  cldorinatcd  soda  is  employed  in  the  treatment  of 
aphthous,  gangrenous,  and  putrid  affections  of  the  soft  tissues,  and 
also  from  the  presence  of  chlorine  in  bleaching  discolored  dentine. 

Phenate  of  Soda  (f*henol  sodiquc)  is  antiseptic  and  astringent,  and 
efficient  as  a  styptic  in  the  less  severe  cases  of  hemorrhage  after 
extraction. 

The  sulphite,  bisulphite,  and  hyposulphite  of  soda,  are  each  recom- 
mended for  the  treatment  of  parasitic  vegetative  conditions  of  the 
soft  tissues.  Strong  solutions  of  either  of  these  assist  in  removing 
iodine  stains,  and  a  saturated  solution  of  the  hyposulphite  added  to 
tincture  of  iodine  gradually  decolorizes  the  latter. 

Borax  is  another  of  this  cla.ss  of  salts  used  in  the  treatment  of 
ai)]itha?,  either  alone,  or  in  combination  with  sugar  or  honey. 

Water  of  Ammonia  and  spirits  of  ammonia  are  useful  in  cases  of 
syncope  and  nervousness.  For  internal  exhibition  the  aromatic  spirit 
furnishes  the  most  agreeable  form.  The  strong-er  water  of  ammonia 
is  successfully  used  in  some  cases  of  sensitive  dentine. 

A  solution  of  fjum  sandarac  in  alcohol  forms  a  varnish  much  used 
on  cotton,  to  retain  and  protect  applications  to  exposed  pulps.  It  is 
also  used  on  oxychloride  fillings  while  setting,  to  protect  them  from 
moisture. 

Alum  is  employed  in  the  treatment  of  relaxed  and  irritable  con- 
ditions of  the  soft  tissues.  A  continuous  washing  of  excessively 
tender  mouths  facilitates  the  taking  of  an  impression  and  the  wear- 
ing of  artificial  dentures.  It  is  also  employed  as  an  astringent  and 
styptic. 

Glycerin,  while  not  destitute  of  useful  medicinal  qualities  of  its 
own,  is  princii)ally  employed  as  a  menstruum  or  vehicle  of  exhibi- 
tion of  other  agents.  Valuable  combinations  are  made  of  glycerin 
with  iodine,  creasote,  carbolic  acid,  tannic  acid,  the  salts  of  morphia., 
some  of  the  salts  of  soda,  and  other  agents. 

Canada  Balsam  is  used  as  a  protection  for  exposed  pulps. 

Tincture  of  Ilyrrh  is  one  of  the  oldest  remedies  for  relaxed,  in- 
flamed, and  congested  gums.  Myrrh  is  also  an  ingredient  of  many 
of  the  more  complex  mouth-washes. 

Collodion  is  considered  one  of  the  most  effectual  means  to  be 
used  for  the  prevention  of  external  breakage  of  alveolar  abscess.  It 
has  also  been  used  as  a  protection  for  exposed  pulps.     It  is  also  ap- 


98  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

plied  to  wouiifls,  and  as  a  dressing  after  surgical  operations.  It  is 
often  variously  medicated,  and  is  thouglit  to  be  advantageous  as  a  vehi- 
cle for  the  application  of  counter-irritants,  as  cantharides  and  iodine. 

Tannic  Acid  is  among  the  stronger  astringents.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  powerful  haemostatics.  In  various  solutions  it  serves  in  the 
treatment  of  cancrum  oris,  diseased  antrum,  and  generally  where  an 
astringent  is  indicated.  The  solution  in  glycerin  is  valuable.  A 
saturated  solution  of  tannic  acid  and  gun-cotton  in  ether  forius  the 
styptic  colloid,  suggested  by  Dr.  B.  W.  Richardson. 

Several  of  the  salts  of  iron  are  in  use  as  styptics.  Of  these  prefer-  ' 
euce  is  generally  given  to  the  suhsulphate  and  the  perchloride.  Mon- 
sel's  solution  of  the  subsulphate  Ls  a  convenient  and  familiar  form. 
Also  cotton  is  saturated  in  the  solution  and  allowed  to  dry,  making 
styptic  cotton.  These  salts  are  reckoned  the  most  powerful  of 
haemostatics. 

Pungent  oils  are  considerably  in  use  in  the  treatment  of  sensitive 
dentine.  Among  them  may  be  named  the  oils  of  cloves,  mustard,  pep- 
permint,  spearmint,  and  horse-radish.  The  first  named  is  much  em- 
ployed to  relieve  odontalgia  from  exposed  pulps.  Withiu  two  years 
a  proprietary  preparation,  said  to  have  the  oil  of  horse-radish  root  as 
one  of  its  principal  ingredients,  has  been  tried  as  an  obtunder ;  its 
effects,  however,  have  not  been  uniformly  successful.  Pastes  or 
poultices  of  the  flour  of  mustiU'd  are  of  use  where  external  counter- 
irritation  is  indicated. 

A  solution  of  gutta-percha  in  chloroform  is,  for  some  purposes, 
preferred  to  collodion,  being  free  from  contraction  during  the  evap- 
oration of  the  menstruum.  It  supplies  a  ready  means  for  retaining 
medicaments  in  cavities,  and  is  also  one  of  the  many  materials  used 
for  pulp-capping. 

The  preparations  of  iodine  are  among  the  most  important  medi- 
cines used  by  the  dentist.  In  the  treatment  of  hyperaesthesia,  con- 
gestion of  the  pulp,  and  periodontitis,  iodine  is  one  of  the  most  com- 
monly employed  counter-irritants.  Iodine  hastens  the  absorption 
and  resolution  of  collections  of  pus,  and  hence  its  employment  in 
alveolar  and  other  abscesses.  When  iodine  is  used  upon  tooth-sub- 
tance,  the  employment  of  a  decolorized  tincture  prevents  the  discolor- 
ation otherwise  inevitable.  Fistulas  and.  indolent  states  of  other 
affections  of  the  soft  tissues  are  stimulated  by  applications  of  this 
agent.  Iodine  Is  combined  with  various  other  drugs,  as  carbolic  acid, 
creasote,  and  aconite;.  These  combinations  possess  the  properties  of 
both  ingredients,  and  are  used  where  both  seem  indicated. 


sa 


OPERATIVE    DEXTISTUY.  99 

One  or  two  of  the  salts  of  zinc  form  the  main  reliance  of  some 
dentists  in  the  treatment  of  alveolar  abscess.  The  sulphate  and  the 
chloride  are  usnally  employed,  the  weaker  aqueous  solutions  being 
most  generally  eificient.  These  salts  also  appear  to  exert  a  peculiarly 
favorable  influence  upon  manifestations  of  the  mercurial  impression. 

Chloride  of  zinc  in  deliquescent  crystals  is  among  the  most  effec- 
tual remedies  for  sensitiveness  of  dentine.  Some  dentists  prefer  the 
action  of  the  chloride  as  obtained  from  fillings  of  the  oxychloride, 
rej)cated  if  necessary. 

Chromic  Acid  has  been  suggested  as  an  obtunder  for  sensitiveness 
of  dentine  ;  but  the  dangers  connected  with  its  use  seem  to  prevent 
its  general  employment. 

Oxalic  Acid  stands  at  the  head  of  the  list  of  bleaching  agents  for 
discolored  dentine. 

During  the  year  1875,  the  attention  of  the  profession  was  called  to 
salicylic  acid  as  possessing  the  more  desirable  properties  of  carbolic 
acid  without  being  an  escharotic.  In  some  cases  of  pulpitis  and 
alveolar  abscess  its  use  appears  to  have  been  attended  with  the  hap- 
piest effects.  Experiments  appear  to  show,  however,  that  as  an  anti- 
septic, antizymotic,  disinfectant,  and  deodorizer  it  is  inferior  to  other 
agencies  previously  employed  for  the  same  purposes. 

Nitric  Acid  has  been  used  for  sensitive  dentine,  and  weak  dilutions 
of  sulphuric  and  chlorohydric  acids  for  cleaning  teeth;  but  their 
dangerous  qualities  are  so  great  that  the  majority  of  practitioners  do 
not  indorse  them. 

The  aromatic  sulphuric  acid  occupies  a  special  field  in  the  treat- 
ment of  necrosed  bone.  It  is  also,  by  a  few,  employed  in  alveolar 
abscess  and  some  other  affections. 

The  bicarbonate  of  potash  is  capable  of  meeting  much  the  same 
indications  as  the  bicarbonate  of  soda.  The  chlorate  and  perman- 
ganate of  potasli  are  of  use  in  aphthous  affections.  Tlie  last  is 
especially  valuable  in  indolent,  gangrenous,  and  fetid  conditions. 

Tinctures  of  ivhife  oah  bark,  kino,  krameria,  and  catechu,  as 
astringents,  and  pcMtory  as  a  counter-irritant,  have  had  considerable 
employment ;  but  the  majority  of  them  are  probably  now  less  used 
than  formerly.  The  same  is  true  of  the  terchloride  of  gold  for  sen- 
sitive dentine,  and  of  matico  as  a  haemostatic. 

Prei)arations  of  Erigeron  Canadensis,  of  some  of  the  salts  of  lead, 
and  of  lead  ivith  opium  are  employed  in  the  systemic  treatment  for 
hemorrhage.  Solutions  of  the  acetate  and  sub-acetate  of  lead  are  also- 
used  locally  as  styptics. 


lOO  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DP:NTI.STRY, 

Carvacrol  and  thymol  meet  the  indications  in  acute  affections  of  the 
pulps  consequent  upon  jjerforatinij^  caries,  and  are  by  some  preferred 
to  creasote  or  carbolic  acid.  Thymol  is  sometimes  combined  with 
glycerin. 

The  use  of  pepsin  has  been  suggested  to  aid  in  the  thorough 
cleansing  of  canals  after  devitalization  of  the  pulps,  and  appears  to 
serve  a  very  useful  purpose. 

Tincture  of  Cajjsicuni  is  used  in  some  cases  where  active  stimulation 
is  required,  and  may  be  also  employed  as  a  counter-irritant. 

An  extract  of  hamamelis  is  by  some  employed  after  the  extraction 
of  roots  and  in  the  treatment  of  other  wounds,  to  allay  pain  and  pro- 
duce healing. 

Hydrate  of  Chloral  is  employed  to  some  extent  as  an  anodyne 
narcotic.  It  appears,  however,  to  lack  uniformity  of  action,  and 
has  not  attained  to  the  position  it  might  otherwise  have  held. 

To  assist  sensitive  and  delicately  organized  patients  to  undergo 
trying  operations,  sulphate  or  meconate  of  morphia,  in  alternation 
with  lacfucarium  or  assafo'tida,  are  sometimes  exhibited  twelve  to 
eighteen  hours  before  operating. 

Such  are  some  of  the  drugs  to  which  the  oral  practitioner  of 
to-day  has  most  frequent  recourse.  The  list  is  by  no  means  com- 
plete, nor  can  it  be  rendered  so,  as  circumstances  may  occur  and 
conditions  be  presented  which  may  indicate  the  use  of  almost  any 
article  in  the  range  of  medicine. 

EXTRACTION   AND   TRANSPLANTATION. 

The  extraction  of  an  aching  tooth  was,  very  probably,  the  fii*st 
dental  operation  ever  performed,  and,  for  a  long  time,  was  the  prin- 
cipal one;  and  even  as  late  as  1836,  Spooncr  recommends  it  as  the 
sole  remedy  for  *'  odontitis,  periostitis,  exostosis,  and  necrosis."  * 

Woofendalc,  in  1783,  says,t  "There  are  some  teeth  which  it  is 
impossible  to  draw.  This  happens  when  the  roots  are  crooked,  or, 
what  the  dentist  calls  locked  in  the  jaw  ;  or,  when  the  roots  of  the 
double  teeth  diverge  much,  which  most  commonly  those  of  the  upper 
jaw  do.  ...  It  frequently  hapj)ons  that  when  any  of  these  teeth 
break  in  the  attempt  to  extract  them,  the  roots  may  be  got  out  with 
the  greatest  ease  in  a  day  or  two,  a  week,  or  a  fortnight  afterward, 
though  not  at  the  time  the  tooth  breaks." 

*  Guide  to  Sound  Teeth,  New  York,  1836,  pp.  93,  94. 
f  Observiitiuiis  on  the  Teeth,  London,  1783,  p.  81. 


I 


i 


OPERATIVE    DENTISTRY.  101 

Of  lancing  the  gums  in  extraction,  Hunter  (1771)  remarks  that  it 
"is  attended  with  very  little  advantage,  because  at  best  it  can  be  only 
imperfectly  done,  and  that  part  of  the  gum  which  adheres  to  the 
tooth  decays  when  it  is  lost."  Woofendale,  however,  advises  that 
the  gum  be  "  always  lanced  or  separated*froni  it  (the  tooth)  as  effec- 
tually as  possible."  *  He  used  only  dried  sponge  or  lint,  with  com- 
presses, and  to  keep  the  body  cool,  for  cases  of  hemorrhage  after 
extraction,  saying,  "  I  never  had  occasion  to  use  any  other  means." 

Perhaps  the  first  expression  of  the  opinion  that  extraction  in 
general  is  an  evil  and  should  be  avoided,  which  occurs  in  any  Amer- 
ican dental  work,  is  by  L.  S.  Parmly,  in  his  work  on  "  The  Man- 
agement of  the  Teeth,"  Philadelphia,  1819,  page  127.  He  says, 
"My  experience  warrants  me  in  asserting  that  extraction  is  much 
oftener  resorted  to  than  is  necessary.  AVhenever  a  tooth  is  painful, 
it  is  advisable  to  have  it  examined,  and  an  endeavor  should  be  made 
to  remove  the  malady  by  palliative  means,  and  if  it  prove  carious  the 
diseased  part  i^hould  be  removed  and  the  tooth  repaired.  Indeed, 
there  is  no  necessity  for  having  recourse  to  this  dangerous  expedient 
(extraction)  even  if  the  crown  be  entirely  decayed  ;  for  the  fangs  of 
the  teeth  will  always  admit  of  engrafting.  Extraction,  therefore, 
can  only  be  necessary  either  to  prevent  or  remedy  irregidarity  in  the 
arrangement  of  the  permanent  teeth  of  children,  or  in  some  diseases 
of  rare  occurrence  in  the  adult.  ...  In  all  other  cases  it  is  to  be 
opposed,  and  is  a  wanton  outrage  on  the  unhappy  individual  who, 
frpm  the  effect  of  pain,  is  brought  to  submit  to  this  harsh  and  often 
unavailing  measure.  .  .  .  Where  extraction,  however,  is  advis- 
able, I  employ  an  instrument  similar  to  that  of  (sic)  an  engraver's 
tool.  In  this  I  differ  from  all  other  operators,  for  they  uniformly 
prefer  the  key  instrument,  so  long  in  use.  It  is  true  that  it  has 
undergone  several  alterations  and  has  received  some  improvements  ; 
but  the  principle  of  it,  even  in  its  most  improved  state,  remains  the 
same,  and  cannot  be  too  strongly  reprobated." 

To  this  subject  Koecker  gives  no  less  than  80  pages,  in  a  work  of 
445,t  or  nearly  one-fifth  of  his  book ;  from  which  may  be  inferred 
the  importance  he  attaches  to  extraction.  He  remarks,  "  When  we 
consider  the  frequent  necessity  for  this  operation,  and  its  beneficial 
effects  even  only  so  far  as  it  regards  its  physical  influences,  the  great 
importance  of  it  seems  to  be  placed  beyond  any  doubt ;  and,  indeed, 


*  Loc.  cit.,  p.  84. 

t  Principles  of  Dental  Surgery,  London,  1820,  pp.  300-380. 


102  IIISTOKY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY 


4 


on  all  accounts  it  must  be  allowed  that  there  is  not  an  operation  in 
anv  branch  of  surgery  more  worthy  of  the  particular  consideration  of 
the  liberal-minded  and  scientific  surgeon,  than  extraction." 

Koecker  mentions  the  punch,  the  pelican,  the  key,  and  "  some  pairs 
of  forceps,"  as  the  instrumeilts  then  in  genei'al  use  in  extraction.  He 
deprecates  the  use  of  the  key,  says  the  pelican  is  almost  obsolete,  and 
the  punch  extremely  ill-adapted  to  its  purpose,  and  adds,  in  regard 
to  forceps,  that  those  "  in  common  use  at  present  are  generally  so  ill- 
contrived  as  to  be  usually  applied  (only)  in  cases  of  no  difficulty ;" 
but  that  "  the  application  of  this  instrument  would  be  far  preferable 
to  that  of  any  other,  in  many  cases,  were  it  better  constructed  for  its 
intended  purpose.  At  present,  however,  forceps  are  usually  applied 
only  for  removing  loose  teeth." 

Fitch,*  in  reference  to  deciduous  teeth,  says  they  should  be  ex- 
tracted when  carious,  but  not  until  they  become  loose.  He  advocates 
the  use  of  the  key,  though  admitting  that  forceps  should  be  employed 
"  M-hen  the  dentist  can  extract  the  tooth  w' ithout  the  key." 

Harris  t  says  of  the  forceps,  that  "  until  the  last  seven  or  eight 
vears  they  were  not  very  commonly  or  extensiv^ely  used.  But  the 
improvements  that,  during  this  period,  have  been  made  in  their  con- 
struction, are  so  great,  that  their  use  has  now,  with  many  practition- 
ers, altogether  superseded  that  of  the  key." 

From  about  the  year  1825  there  appears  to  have  grown  gradually 
a  feeling  in  the  profession  against  the  indiscriminate  extraction  so        4 
common  before  (and,  to  a  large  extent,  after)  that  period.     This  daie        ' 
is  also  that  of  the  general  appearance  of  the  idea  that  teeth  should  be 
saved,  not  extracted.     This  idea  accumulated  strength,  until  at  pres-         -^ 
ent  it  may  be  said  to  be  a  cardinal  point  in  dentistry ;  and  the  ex- 
traction of  teeth  is  now  resorted  to,  by  the  best  practitioners,  only  in 
cases  where  preservative  agencies  would  fail,  or  in  the  correction  of       I 
irregularities. 

The  iransplaatation  of  teeth  is  an  old  operation ;  but  as  Hunter 
was  the  first  and  greatest  of  dental  writers  to  advocate  the  practice, 
its  origin  has  been  ascribed  to  him.  This  is  not  correct,  as  will  easily 
be  seen  by  a  perusal  of  his  well-known  work.  He  says,  in  Part  II., 
"  The  insertion  of  a  dead  tooth  Juu  been  recommended,  and  I  have 
known  them  continue  for  many  years."  In  regard  to  the  operation, 
he  remarks,  "  Although  this  operation  is  in  itself  a  matter  of  no  diffi- 


*  A  System  of  Dental  Surgery,  New  York,  1829,  p.  3-33  et  seq. 
I  Deiitiil  Surgery,  Baltimore,  1839,  p.  181  et  seq. 


OPERATIVE    DENTISTRY.  103 

culty,  yet,  upon  the  whole,  it  is  one  of  the  nicest  of  all  operations, 
and  requires  more  chirurgical  and  physiological  knowledge  than  any 
that  comes  under  the  care  of  the  dentist.  .  .  .  The  incisorcs,  cuspi- 
dati,  and  bicuspides  can  alone  be  changed,  because  they  have  single 
fangs.  .The  success  is  greater  in  the  incisores  and  cmtpidati  than  the 
bicuspides,  these  last  having  frequently  the  ends  of  their  fangs  forked. 
....  It  is  hardly  possible  to  transplant  the  grinders,  as  the  chance 
of  fitting  the  sockets  of  them  is  very  small.  When,  indeed,  a  grinder 
is  extracted,  and  the  socket  sound  and  perfect,  the  dentist  may,  per- 
haps, be  able  to  fit  it  by  a  dead  tooth." 

In  the  earliest  days  of  American  dentistry,  this  operation  was  con- 
siderably in  vogue.  It  was  introduced  here  by  Lemaire ;  who,  as 
we  have  seen,  came  to  this  country  with  the  French  army  in  1781. 
His  advent  in  Philadeljjhia  is  noted  by  an  advertisement  (1784)  in 
which  he  proposes  to  transplant  teeth  for  the  citizens  of  that  town, 
and  states  that  he  had,  in  the  six  months  previous,  "transplanted 
successfully  123  teeth."*  The  chronicler  adds,  that  this  was  quite  a 
novelty  in  Philadelphia,  and  that  "Doctor  Le  Mayeur"  had  "great 
success,"  and  "went  oif  with  much  of  our  patricians'  money;"  also, 
that  "  several  respectable  ladies  had  them  implanted."  Unfortunately 
for  Lemaire's  reputation  as  an  operator,  however,  "  they  were,  in  some 
cases,  two  months  before  they  could  eat  with  them."  f 

Of  Lemaire's  practice  in  this  regard  we  have  further  accounts. 
James  Gardette,  in  the  Philadelphia  Medical  Recorder,  1827,  says 
that  "  Mr.  Lemayeur,  with  the  reputation  of  an  eminent  dentist,  had 
trans^ilanted  one  hundred  and  seventy  teeth  in  this  city,  in  the  course 
of  the  winter  of  the  years  1785  and  1786,  as  he  told  me  himself,  at 
Baltimore,  in  the  fall  of  the  last-mentioned  year ;  and  that,  of  all 
those  transplanted  teeth  not  one  succeeded !  Some  became  firm,  and 
lasted,  more  or  less  so,  for  one  or  two  years,  in  the  sockets  in  which 
they  had  been  inserted ;  but  those  cases  were  very  rare."  After 
citing  many  cases  of  failure  in  transplantation  which  had  come  under 
his  notice,  among  which  were  two  of  John  Hunter's  and  some  of  his 
own  operating,  Mr.  Gardette  adds,  "  My  opinion,  therefore,  is  that 
teeth  cannot  be  transplanted  from  one  mouth  into  another  so  as  to 
answer  the  intended  effect.  ...  I  therefore  believe  that  there  are  a 
thousand  chances  to  one  against  the  success  of  the  operation." 

Dr.  Josiah  Flagg,  also,  as  appears  from  an  existing  circular  of  his, 
dated  1796,  "Transplants  both  live  and  dead  teeth  with  groat  con- 

*  Watson's  Annals  of  Pliiladdfihia,  vol.  i.  p.  179.  t  ^f''^- 


104  IIISTOUV    OF    AMi:HICAN    DENTISTRY. 


I 


veniont-y,  and  gives  less  pain  than  heretofore  j)raeticcd  in  Europe  or 
America." 

In  fact,  for  several  years  after  its  introduction,  transplantation  Avas 
a  part  of  the  })ractice  of  the  most  prominent  American  dentists.  In 
tlieir  excuse  it  may  be  said  that  they  "were  much  nearer  the  great 
teachers  of  the  science  (Hunter,  Fox,  Bell,  etc.)  than  are  the  dentists 
of  to-day;  and  the  practice  of  such  leaders  appeared,  and  then  was, 
the  best  they  had  to  follow. 

But  experience  proved  a  better  leader  in  the  end  than  books.  The 
almost  invariable  want  of  success  in  the  operation,  and  the  better 
methods  of  practice  which  gradually  came  into  vogue,  led  to  its  final 
discontinuance ;  and  it  is  thought  that,  for  many  yeai's  past,  the 
practice  of  transplantation  has  not  been  attempted,  except  in  a  few 
isolated  instances. 

lieplantut'wn,  an  operation  akin  to  the  last  noticed,  was  also  par- 
ticularly advocated  by  Hunter,  and  has  probably  had  more  of  suc- 
cess to  recommend  its  employment  than  the  other.  Dr.  James 
Gardette  says  of  it,*  "  It  has  sometimes  happened  that  a  dentist 
has  extracted  a  sound  tooth  for  a  bud  one.  ...  If  such  tooth  is 
replaced  in  its  socket  immediately  after  extraction,  it  will  certainly 
become  as  firm  and  useful  as  ever."  Dr.  Gardette  held  that  the 
principal  cause  of  failure  in  transplantation  was  the  impossibility  of 
obtaining  exact  adaptation  of  the  tooth  inserted  to  the  socket  which 
received  it,  saying, f  "If  another  tooth  could  have  been  found,  the 
root  of  which  was  exactly  of  the  same  length,  size,  and  form,  it  might 
have  been  placed  in  the  socket  of  the  tooth  (extracted),  and  it  would  * 

certainly  have  become  as  firm,  and  have  lasted  as  long,  as  the  tooth  '* 

which  had  grown  in  that  socket." 

One  phase  of  Dr.  Gardette's  replanting  practice  deserves  notice 
from  its  then  novelty  of  })urpose.  He  says,!  "I  have  frequently  par- 
tially extracted  and  returned  to  their  sockets,  small  and  large  molars 
wliich  liad  been  very  painiul,  after  having  cut  the  gum  on  the  side 
opposite  to  that  on  which  I  intended  the  tooth  to  fall  in  partially 
extracting  it.  The  jjurpose  of  this  operation  is  to  separate  or  rend 
the  nerve  asunder,  so  as  to  prevent  the  tooth  from  giving  pain  in 
future;  the  tooth  is  tlien  put  l)ack  into  its  socket,  permitted  to  become 
firm,  and  the  cavity  is  then  to  be  plugged;  this  I  always  did  with  full 
success."  Dr.  Gardette  is  believed  to  have  been  the  first  to  perform 
this  operation. 


*  AmcT.  Jour.  Dental  Science,  1st  Series,  vol.  x.  p.  64.         f  Ibid.  J  Ibid. 


OPERATIVE    DENTISTRY.  105 

As  a  curiosity  in  replantation  may  be  mentioned  the  extraction  of 
diseased  teeth,  their  being  filled  ichile  out  of  the  mouth,  and  their  sub- 
sequent replacement  in  the  so(;kets  from  which  they  came.  There  are 
accounts  of  many  such  cases.  The  success  of  this  operation  may  be 
considered  to  be  doubtful,  although  sufficient  time  has  hardly  elapsed 
to  fully  demonstrate  that  conclusion. 

Replantation  has  also  been  often  resorted  to  as  a  means  of  relief  in 
cases  of  alveolar  abscess  and  of  irritation  arising  from  dental  exos- 
tosis, with  good  results. 

FILING   AND   REGULATING. 

The  reasons  for  the  use  of  the  file  are  given  by  Woofendale,  1783, 
as  follows:*  "Teeth  are  filed  on  various  accounts,  viz.:  to  remove 
broken  or  jagged  points,  which  happen  either  from  accident  or  decay, 
and  are  liable  to  injure  the  cheek  or  tongue;  to  stop  the  progress  of 
a  beginning  or  advancing  caries ;  to  round  off  the  edges  of  teeth 
(though  not  decayed  or  broken)  that  grow  irregular  and  prove  trou- 
blesome to  the  cheek  or  tongue;  and  lastly,  for  ornament."  He 
adds,  "  Some  univei-sally  condemn  filing  the  teeth ;  on  the  other 
hand,  some  are  for  having  all  teeth  filed.  ...  I  apprehend  some 
teeth  cannot  be  filed  without  being  injured  by  it ;  others  cannot  be 
saved  by  any  other  method." 

Crude  as  were  the  above  ideas  respecting  the  use  of  this  in- 
strument, they  were  universally  held  at  the  date  of  "NYoofendale's 
writing.  The  removal  of  "■  broken  or  jagged  points"  and  the  round- 
ing off  "of  edges  of  teeth  that  grow  irregular  and  prove  trouble- 
some to  the  cheeks  or  tongue,"  are  ideas  descended  direct  from 
Celsus.  "To  stop  the  progress  of  a  beginning  or  advancing  caries" 
shows  a  considerable  accession  to  artistic  dental  processes  as  well  as 
scientific  knowledge. 

It  was  not  long  before  even  further  progress  was  made  in  profes- 
sional breadth  and  accuracy  of  view.  Benjamin  James  (1814) 
says,t  "The  sides  of  the  upper  teeth  lie  closely  together,  while  the 
crowns  of  the  under  teeth  touch  only  at  that  point  which  is  most 
distant  from  the  gum.  For  this  reason  noxious  accumulations  be- 
tween the  upper  teeth  cannot  be  so  easily  removed  as  between  the 
lower  teeth.     It  is  therefore  in  the  power  of  the  file  to  destroy  the 

*  Practical  Observations  on  the  Human  Teeth,  London,  1783,  p.  156. 

f  A  Treatise  on  the  Management  of  the  Human  Teeth,  Boston,  1814,  p.  58. 


106  IIISTOUY    OF    AMERICAN    DEXTISTRY. 

greater  aptness  of  the  upper  teeth  to  decay."  Here  it  is  evident  that, 
from  savino;  ah'cady-decayed  teeth,  the  idea  has  advanced  to  the 
prevention  of  such  decay. 

In  ilhistration  of  the  early  objections  to  filing  teeth,  we  will  quote 
Josiah  F.  Flagg,  from  ])ao;e  69  of  his  work,  "  The  Family  Dentist," 
published  in  Boston  in  1822.  "The  particular  objections  to  the  use 
of  these  instruments  are  :  1.  That  they  do  not  remove  the  whole  of 
the  decayed  parts  of  the  teeth  ;  and  it  is  a  fact  sufficiently  evident  to 
common  observation  that  the  disease  of  caries  is  often  communicated 
from  one  tooth  to  another  by  contact ;  and  it  is  equally  true  that, 
while  any  of  the  defecfive  part  of  a  tooth  is  suflfcred  to  remain,  the 
liability  of  that  tooth  to  decay  is  much  greater  than  if  this  part  were 
entirely  removed.  2.  That  in  all  cases  the  effect  of  sawing  or  filing 
is  to  deprive  the  teeth  unnecessarily  of  a  great  portion  of  their  sound 
enamel,  particularly  when  these  operations  are  performed  on  the  front 
teeth.  3.  That  the  crowns  of  the  teeth  being  broader  than  their 
fangs,  they  often  crowd  together  in  such  a  manner  that,  by  the 
repeated  operations  of  filing  to  keep  them  separated,  one-quarter, 
and  sometimes  one-third  of  each  tooth  is  sacrificed  by  the  use  of 
these  improper  instruments.  4.  That  separating  sound  tcdli  with 
the  file  or  saw  (or,  indeed,  with  any  other  instrument)  is  a  practice 
for  which  there  can  be  no  reasonable  apology.  The  idea  that  they 
may  be  too  close,  and  injure  each  other  by  lateral  pressure,  is  alto- 
gether erroneous,  and  there  are  no  just  grounds  for  the  belief  that, 
by  this  operation,  they  may  be  prevented  from  decaying.  .  .  .  As 
a  substitute  for  files  and  saws,  it  is  now  recommended  to  use,  in  the 
operations  for  caries,  small,  crooked  knives  and  other  cutting  instru- 
ments, which  are  liable  to  none  of  the  above  objections,  and  which 
enable  the  operator  to  effect  the  first  and  (which  are)  also  the  most 
important  objects  in  the  treatment  of  this  disciise." 

Fitch,  too,  in  1829,  writes  at  great  length  against  the  se])aration 
of  sound  teeth  by  the  file,  in  the  course  of  which  he  says,*  "  The 
direction  of  Mr.  Fox  to  divide  (separate)  the  teeth  when  crowded 
merely,  and  not  carious,  has,  by  its  injudicious  adoption  and  indis- 
criminate performance,  been  productive,  probably,  of  more  injurious 
consequences  than  any  mode  of  practice,  or  any  direction  ever  given 
by  any  writer  or  practitioner  of  dental  surgery.  Almost  every 
dentist  who  has  read  Mr.  Fox,  has  adopted  and  followed  this  prac- 
ti(!e.     The  pernicious  consequences  of  it  are  seen  almost  every  day." 

*  A  System  of  Dental  Surgery,  New  York,  1820,  p.  387. 


OPERATIVE   DENTISTRY.  107 

Spooner,  on  page  129  of  his  work  on  the  teeth,  published  in  New 
York,  1836,  speaks  as  follows  with  regard  to  filing  :  "  AVe  have  pre- 
cisely the  same  ideas  in  relation  to  the  use  of  the  file  when  it  is 
injudiciously  employed  as  those  have  who  do  not  discriminate 
betMccn  its  proper  application  and  its  abuse ;  yet  we  are  bold  to 
affirm,  that  its  employment  in  the  hands  of  a  skillful  dentist  is  a 
most  efficient  and  sure  means  of  removing  and  arresting  incipient 
decay  of  the  teeth,  and,  as  thus  employed,  is  approved  by  the  best 
dentists  of  the  age.  Some  dentists  are  in  the  habit  of  separating  the 
front  teeth  when  perfectly  sound,  to  prevent  decay.  We  totally  dis- 
card this  practice.  ...  It  is  quite  in  time  to  tann)erwith  the  disease 
and  to  dabble  with  the  remedies  after  the  former  has  made  its  appear- 
ance. Finally,  upon  this  subject,  we  would  advise  adherence  to  the 
following  maxims  :  First.  Never  file  a  tooth  except  disease  justify 
the  use  of  the  file.  Second.  Consider  filing  a  less  evil  than  disease, 
and  consequently  to  be  preferred  to  it.  Third.  Never  file  a  tooth  for 
the  removal  of  caries,  unless  by  so  doing  you  can  extirpate  the  disease 
effijctually,  and  that,  too,  witliout  too  great  a  sacrifice  of  the  substance 
of  the  tooth,  and  at  the  same  time  do  not  injure  the  chance  for  the 
operation  of  the  plugging,  should  circumstances  subsequently  require 
it.  Fourth.  Do  not  file  a  tooth  that  can  be  better  and  more  effectu- 
ally treated  by  plugging." 

These  extracts  will  show  the  strong  feeling  against  improper  use 
of  the  file  which  has  always  existed  in  the  profession;  and  the  separ- 
ation of  sound  teeth  is  also  indicated  as  the  extreme  of  such  wrong 
employment,  and  as  especially  to  be  reprobated. 

Since  a  comparatively  recent  period,  somewhat  advanced  ideas  in 
the  treatment  of  caries  have  become  generally  promulgated.  The 
principal  of  these  comprehends  the  prevention  of  decay  in  contradis- 
tinction to  its  treatment  after  formation.  This  object,  in  itself  indica- 
tive of  a  high  scientific  and  humanitarian  stand-point,  has  been  pro- 
posed to  be  attained  by  the  early  extraction  of  certain  teeth,  the  removal 
of  Avhich  should,  by  affi)rding  sufficient  space,  allow  the  natural  sepa- 
ration of  the  remainder,  and  thus  avoid  that  lodgment  of  interstitial 
deposits  which  has  always  been  recognized  as  one  of  the  principal 
sources  of  decay.  This  course  of  procedure  has  obtained  very  largely, 
although  strenuously  opposed  by  many. 

Among  those  in  opposition  to  the  above  process  of  prevention, 
another  method  has  sprung  up,  or  rather,  been  revived ;  for  it  is 
simply  a  recourse  to  the  old,  and  so  long  and  strenuously  depre- 
cated use  of  the  file.     This  method  is  employed  by  some  dentists  of 


108  HISTORY    OF   AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

very  superior  professional  cminenee,  but  has  not  been  generally 
adopted,  and  is  (piite  as  strongly  opposed,  and  much  more  widely 
than  the  extraction  of  the  now  somewhat  notorious  "sixth-year 
molar." 

IRREGULARITIES. 

The  treatment  of  dental  irregularities  has  been  long  a  subject  of 
much  moment  in  operative  dentistry,  and  has  engaged,  especially 
more  lately,  the  best  energies  of  some  of  the  foremost  men  in  the 
profession.  From  the  correction,  at  first,  of  only  the  simplest  devia- 
tions from  normal  position,  it  has  become  possible,  and  even  usual, 
to  rectify  the  most  marked  and  excessive  malformations  of  the  dental 
arch.  The  methods  by  which  these  results  are  now  obtained  do  not 
appear  to  differ  greatly  in  essentials  from  those  formerly  employed; 
and  thus,  although  much  improvement  over  the  older  forms  is  mani- 
fest in  modern  appliances  for  regulating,  the  principles  of  mechani- 
cal action  involved  are  much  the  same  as  before;  from  which  it  will 
be  justly  inferred  that  the  advance  apparent  in  the  treatment  of 
irregularities  is  more  an  extension  and  amplification  of  ideas  formed 
long  ago  than  the  introduction  of  new  ones  or  different  theories. 

Following  the  older  authors  whom  we  have  already  quoted  on  the 
previous  subject,  and  in  pursuance  of  the  plan  generally  adopted 
throughout  this  work,  a  chain  of  ideas  on  the  subject  will  be  pre- 
sented, which  shall  illustrate  the  growth  and  progress  of  methods  of 
treating  irregularity. 

Woofendale  says,*  "  Was  proper  attention  paid  to  the  removal  of 
the  first  set  of  teeth,  the  just  symmetry  and  proportion  of  the  second 
might  be  preserved,  and  consequently  every  inconvenience  and  defect 
arising  from  irregularity  would  be  avoided.  .  .  .  "When  the  teeth 
come  irregular,  and  have  been  neglected  for  some  time,  they  fre- 
quently may  be  reduced  into  proper  order  with  safety.  This  opera- 
tion often  takes  some  months  if  the  teeth  are  much  out  of  their 
l)laccs.  The  younger  the  patient  the  better  when  this  operation  is 
to  be  performed.  There  is  a  method  of  performing  it  very  expe- 
ditiously, by  twisting  the  teeth  into  their  places  by  means  of  a  pair 
of  strong  plyers.  This  method  is  practiced  by  some ;  but  it  may  not 
be  improper  to  observe,  that  the  patient  is  liable  to  have  the  bony 
socket  split,  or  the  teeth  broken  or  forced  out  in  the  operation ;  yet 

*  Observations  on  the  Teeth,  1783,  p.  23. 


« 


I 


I 


OPERATIVE    DENTrSTRY.  109 

allowing  none  of  these  accidents  to  happen,  they  often  remain  loose 
and  troublesome  ever  after."  When  the  comino;  of  the  canines  is 
much  delayed,  and  there  is  a  prospect  of  their  irregular  presentation, 
he  says,  "  it  is  sometimes  (though  not  always)  advisable  to  take  out 
either  the  first  double,  or  the  second  single  teeth,  to  give  room  for  the 
progress  of  the  eye-teeth." 

Benjamin  James  writes,*  "With  proper  attention  paid  to  the  re- 
moval of  the  first  set  of  teeth,  the  regularity  of  the  second  may  be ' 
anticipated.  .  .  .  The  jaw  of  a  person  very  young  is  so  soft  and 
yielding  that  a  tooth  taken  out  at  a  considerable  distance  from  a 
deranged  tooth  makes  room  for  it ;  the  teeth  on  each  side  of  the  one 
extracted  crowding  in  to  fill  up  the  vacancy.  But  when  the  jaw  has 
become  more  hard  and  unyielding,  we  can  make  room  for  deranged 
teeth  only  by  drawing  those  in  immediate  contact  with  them.  Then, 
by  gentle  compression  of  the  finger,  applied  daily  for  several  weeks 
to  the  deranged  tooth,  we  see  it  come  into  its  proper  place  as  effec- 
tually as  from  ligatures,  springs,  or  violence." 

L.  S.  Family  observcs,t  "  In  all  cases  of  irregularities,  during  the 
shedding  of  the  teeth,  the  treatment  to  be  observed  is  to  remove  the 
obstructing  temporary  teeth,  and  then  to  apply  pressure,  in  the  most 
convenient  manner,  upon  the  irregular  tooth,  in  order  to  direct  it  into 
its  proper  situation.  .  .  .  Where  the  permanent  teeth  are  large,  and 
the  jaw-bones  have  not  grown  sufficient  to  admit  of  their  enlargement 
in  a  regular  manner,  they  crowd  and  overlap  each  other.  .  .  .  When 
the  space  of  the  jaw  is  not  sufficient  for  the  regular  arrangement  of 
the  teeth,  some  must  then  be  considered  as  superfluous,  and  it  will  be 
necessary  to  remove  one  or  more  of  the  bicuspides  from  each  side  of 
the  jaw,  before  the  fangs  are  formed  (sic),  to  give  room  to  the  rest ; 
the  incisors  must  then  be  gradually  forced  into  their  proper  situation. 
The  occasional  pressure  of  the  finger  and  thumb,  if  attended  to  before 
age  has  given  too  much  firmness  to  the  jaw,  will  invariably  bring  the 
teeth  into  their  proper  places,  without  the  necessity  of  having  recourse 
to  continued  pressure  by  means  of  instruments  adapted  to  the  arch 
of  the  mouth,  as  recommended  by  ]\Ir.  Fox." 

Koccker  recommends,!  as  preventive  of  irregularity  in  secondary 
dentition,  "extracting  some  of  the  permanent  set  at  an  early  period, 
in  order  to  give  sufficient  room  for  the  rest.  .  .  .  The  first  molars 


*  A  Troatise  on  the  Mnnagomont  of  the  Huiniin  Teeth,  1814,  p.  100. 
t  Lectures  on  the  ^^ilnrtgem(•nt  of  the  Teeth,  1819,  p.  145. 
+  D.  ntiil  Surgery,  1826,  p.  101. 


110  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY 


I 


arc  generally  mn^^t  ]>ro(lis])osed  to  tlisease ;  they  are  least  important 
as  it  regards  both  appearanee  and  utility,  and  so  situated  as  to  afford, 
by  timely  removal,  sufficient  room  for  the  anterior  teeth,  as  well  as  [ 
for  the  second  and  third  molarcs.  If  these  teeth  are  extracted  at  any  • 
period  before  the  age  of  twelye  years,  all  the  anterior  teeth  will  grow  ^ 
more  or  less  backwards,  and  the  second  and  third  grinders  so  much  | 
towards  the  anterior  part  of  the  mouth  as  to  fill  up  almost  entirely 
*  the  vacant  spaces  caused  by  the  removal  of  the  first  molares."  . 

Fitch  (1829)*  quotes  Fox  at  great  length  respecting  the  treatment        ' 
of  irregularities,  and  seemingly  rests  his  own  practice  on  the  direc- 
tions then  recorded,  for  he  does  not  make  any  essential  additions  to         ' 
the  modes  or  practice  of  the  older  author.     The  methods  named  are 
all  on  the  single  principle  of  ligatures  or  other  apparatus  attached  to        ^ 
sound  and  regular  teeth  in  such  a  manner  as  to  compel  the  irregular 
ones  to  assume  their  proper  position. 

Spooner  says,t  "  To  remedy  many  cases  of  irregularities  it  is  neces-  | 
sary  to  have  recourse  to  gold  or  silver  plates,  or  other  mechanical  ' 
contrivances.  When  the  front  teeth  stand  too  far  asunder,  from  |^ 
natural  conformation  or  from  too  early  extraction  of  the  temporar)'  | 
teeth  {!),  they  may  readily  be  brought  into  their  proper  position  by  | 
means  of  silken  ligatures  frequently  renewed  so  as  to  exert  a  gentle  Jj 
but  continued  pressure." 

Dr.  Harris  gives  very  particular  and  detailed  directions  for  the        t 
treatment  of  various  kinds  of  irregularities,  following,  generally,  the       J 
practice  of  Fox,  whose  methods,  he  says,  X  "  have  formed  the  basis  of      ^ 
the  established  practice  of  the  last  twenty-five  or  thirty  years,  and 
this  long  trial  has  proved  that  they  were  founded  upon  a  knowledge 
of  the  laws  of  the  economy,  and  much  practical  experience." 

It  is  believed  that  the  principal  improvements  in  the  mechanical 
apparatus  for  correcting  irregularities,  since  the  days  of  the  earlier  ^ 
writers,  have  been,  the  introduction  of  rubber  for  ligatures  (thereby 
rendering  the  latter  elastic),  and  of  wedges,  and,  later,  jackscrews  for 
ol)taining  space  between  teeth  or  different  parts  of  the  dental  arch. 
Rul)ber  was  used  in  this  manner  almost  upon  its  first  appearance  in 
the  a/ts,  in  the  form  of  stri])S  fjistened  at  each  extremity  by  ligatures. 
About  1840,  Dr.  E.  G.  Tucker  employed  cross-sections  of  rubber 
tubing,  which  was  a  material  improvement,  and  is  now  very  much 


*  A  System  of  Dontal  Surpcry,  1829,  p.  417. 
t  Guide  to  Sound  Teelli,  183G,  p.  45. 
X  The  Denttil  Art,  p.  103. 


OPERATIVE    DENTISTRY.  Ill 

used.  _   Gutta-percha  and  rubber  were  used  as  wedges  also,  but  have 
been  rej)laccd  in  this  direction  bv  wood. 

In  1857,  Dr.  Dwindle,  of  New  York,  exhibited  before  the  Ameri- 
can Dental  Convention  the  jackscrews  he  had  previously  devised  for 
regulating.  Since  that  time  others  have  made  various  modifications 
of  his  apparatus,  the  principle  and  mode  of  oj)cration  remaining  still 
the  same  as  in  the  orisrinal. 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES. 

DRYIXG    MOUTH    AND    CAVITIES. 

Nothing,  perhaps,  indicates  more  accurately  the  want  of  thorough- 
ness and  attention  to  detail  in  the  early  practice  of  the  dental  art 
than  the  total  obliviousness  to  all  m inutile  of  operating  shown  by 
even  the  best  dental  writers  of  over  fifty  years  ago.  It  may  be  ob- 
jected to  such  a  statement,  that  those  writers,  actuated  in  their  pub- 
lished works,  as  they  evidently  were,  by  a  spirit  of  general  scientific 
research,"  did  not  choose,  or  considered  it  unnecessary,  to  descend  to 
detail,  imagining  such  things  to  be  sufficiently  well  known  not  to  re- 
quire remark.  But  the  more  probable  explanation  of  this  remissness 
is,  that  even  the  foremost  dental  operators  of  old  did  not  consider 
such  things  sufficiently  important  to  deserve  mention.  Had  they 
not  so  thought,  they  would  have  given  us  much  more  particular 
accounts  of  their  operations  than  they  have  done. 

It  may  be  stated  as  a  fact  that,  until  after  the  introduction  of  gold 
foil,  absence  of  moisture  from  the  filling  Mas  not,  as  now,  considered 
of  great  importance.  The  first  fillings,  consisting  as  they  did  of  lead, 
and  the  various  gums,  were  inserted  in  ^\'hat  Avould  now  be  called  a 
very  careless  and  superficial  manner ;  and  as  that  manner  was  not 
calculated  to  prevent  the  after-entrance  of  moisture  around  the  plug, 
it  will  be  conceded  that  its  first  presence  was  probably  not  thought 
highly  objectionable.  Koecker,*  although  treating  somewhat  elab- 
orately (for  the  time)  of  the  filling  operation,  says  not  a  word  as  to 
the  importance  of  a  dry  cavity.  Fitch  f  mentions  incidentally  the 
wiping  out  of  cavities  with  locks  of  cotton  ;  and  so,  also,  Desirabode.J 
As  dentistry  grew  in  importance  and  extent,  and  its  principles  became 
better  understood,  writers  began  to  treat  more  particularly  of  the 
smaller  processes  dependent  on  operations ;  until  all  the  minutiaj  of 


*  Dental  Surgery.  f  A  Sj-stom  of  Dental  Surgery,  p.  411. 

+  The  Science  smd  Art  of  the  Dentist,  p.  281. 


112  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

the  dental  art  received  such  ample  and  exact  description  as  is  seen 
only  in  the  published  works  of  the  last  decade. 

Hence  it  is  that  the  scantiness  of  information  as  to  detail  which 
has  come  down  to  us  from  more  remote  periods  is  due,  not  so  much 
to  want  of  attention  to  such  proce&ses  on  the  part  of  the  writers  as 
to  actual  non-existence  of  the  processes  themselves  in  the  dental 
practice  of  the  time. 

The  napkin  was  probaljly  the  first,  and  for  a  long  time  the  only, 
implement  used  in  securing  diyness  of  the  cavity  to  be  filled.  This 
being  used  in  the  mouth  to  prevent  access  of  saliva,  that  already  in 
the  cavity  was  removed,  sometimes  by  pledgets  of  cotton,  at  others 
by  dried  and  prepared  flax,  or  strips  or  pellets  of  linen  or  cotton 
cloth.  Afterward  (1850)  Dr.  J.  B.  Rich  recommended*  the  employ- 
ment of  tissue  and  bibulous  paper  for  the  same  purpose.  Even  at 
this  date,  however,  it  was  held  by  some  that  j)erfect  fillings  might  be 
made  in  the  presence  of  moisture  ;t  and  some  operators  used  simply 
the  pressure  of  thumb  and  finger  to  exclude  the  saliva. J 

Dr.  Dwindle,  of  New  York,  described  in  1850  his  method  of 
operating  with  a  wax  coffer-dam  built  up  around  the  tooth. §  The 
difference  between  this  then-elaborate  method,  and  those  mentioned 
in  the  previous  paragraph,  does  not  by  any  means  indicate  any  want 
of  ability  or  operative  attainments  in  the  first-noticed  practitioners, 
but  serves  to  show  the  unsettled  and  growing  state  of  the  art  at  the 
time. 

In  the  year  mentioned,  also,  appears  the  first  notice  of  a  saliva- 
collector  observed.  1 1  The  only  description  of  this  instrument  is  given 
in  the  citation  noted,  as  follows :  "  It  resembles  a  miniature  fife,  and 
is  attached  to  the  under  jaw  to  collect  the  saliva."  In  1854  Dr.  R. 
Arthur  devised  a  "saliva-pump,"^  which  consisted  of  a  bulbed  glass 
tube  terminating  in  a  hollow  rubber  air-chamber,  from  which  the  air 
was  driven  by  pressure,  and  the  saliva  drawn  into  the  tube  by  the 
return  of  the  expelled  air.  Several  other  forms  of  the  saliva-pump 
have  been  devised.  A  noteworthy  one  is  that  of  Dr.  W.  H.  Dibble, 
introduced  about  1866 ;  this  combined  the  offices  of  pump  and 
tongue-holder,  and  also  had  an  appliance  for  discharging  the  saliva 
into  any  receptacle.**     The  "latest  improvement"  in  this  class  of 

*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  2d  Series,  vol.  i.  p.  61. 
t  Ibid.,  pp.  63,  64.  +  Ibid.,  p.  64. 

l  Ibid.,  p.  65.  II  Ibid.,  p.  65. 

\  Di-ntal  News  Letter,  vol.  vii.  p.  102. 
**  Di-ntnl  Cosmos,  vol.  viii.  p.  36. 


{ 


OPERATIVE   DENTISTRY.  113 

instruments  is  the  "  Fisk  ejector,"  designed  for  use  where  a  tap  of 
swiftly-running  Avater  is  convenient,  as  in  cities  and  the  larger  towns. 
This  is  a  very  excellent  apparatus,  combining  great  simplicity  with 
almost  unvarying  certainty  and  efficiency  of  action. 

Compressing  the  orifices  of  the  ducts  of  Steno  and  Wharton  and 
those  of  the  various  other  secretory  glands  of  the  mouth  Avas  early 
practiced.  In  1857  Dr.  Dwindle  used  a  small  tongs  of  gold  wire  for 
this  purpose.*  Miniature  apparatuses  on  the  principle  of  the  truss 
were  also  employed.  In  1804  Dr.  J.  C.  Parker,  of  Grand  Rapids, 
Mich.,  employed  disks  of  biscuit  porcelain,  to  be  j)laced  over  the 
duct-openings. t  These  have  now  given  place  to  similar  disks  of 
pipe-clay. 

Tongue-holders  were  also  early  in  use.  That  of  Dr.  Flagg  con- 
sisted simply  in  a  spoon-shaped  metallic  plate  at  the  end  of  a  handle 
held  by  the  patient.  One  introduced  by  Dr.  E.  Townsend  (1847) 
(the  invention  of  Dr.  Lawrence,  his  student)  was  a  watch-spring  bent 
into  a  semicircle  and  having  pads  on  the  ends,|  which  pressed  on  the 
tong^ue  and  roof  of  the  mouth.  Others  of  various  forms  and  modes 
of  action  have  since  basn  invented ;  most  of  them  holding  the  tongue 
or  napkins  by  pressure  on  the  outer  side  of  the  lower  jaw. 

In  1856  Dr.  Taft  introduced  the  hot-air  blow-pipe  in  substantially 
the  same  form  as  now  uscd.§ 

In  1857  Dr.  Arthur  recommended  the  use  of  cross-sections  of  rub-» 
ber  tubing,  to  be  stretched  around  the  tooth  where  the  cavity  extended 
to  or  below  the  margin  of  the  gum.  The  principle  of  this,  however, 
is  found  in  the  previous  wax  coffer-dam  of  Dwindle,  and  also  in  the 
use  of  plaster  in  the  same  way  as  Dwinelle's  wax.  In  1853  Dr. 
Lord  used  a  "ligature,"||  or  "string-dam,"  consisting  of  waxed  cot- 
ton or  silk  cord  which  he  tied  about  the  tooth,  and  forced  up  against 
the  gum.  A  modification  of  this  was  "Allen's  dam;"  being  the 
winding  of  the  cord  with  gold  or  tin  foil  so  that  the  foil,  when 
compressed  against  the  side  of  the  tooth,  covered  its  whole  surfacc^f 
About  18G0  punk  came  to  be  used  in  place  of  cotton,  flax,  cloth,  or 
paper  pledgets.  The  practice  with  these  materials,  however,  still  de- 
pends entirely  on  the  fancy  of  the  operators;  some  using  one  thing, 
and  some  another. 

*  Dental  News  Letter,  vol.  ii.  p.  34. 
f  Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  vi.  p.  104. 

X  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  1st  Series,  vol.  viii.  p.  54. 
^  Ibid.,  2cl  Si.Ties,  vol.  vi.  p.  555. 

II  Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  x.  p.  242.  Jf  Ibid.,  vol.  vi.  p.  13. 

9 


114  HISTORY    OF    AMEUICAN    DENTISTRY. 

In  1864,  Dr.  S.  C.  Burnum,  of  Xew  York,  brought  forward  the 
now  well-known  rubber  tlam.  The  profession  were  not  slow  in 
recognizing  its  merits,  and  in  1870  a  call  for  subscriptions  to  a 
"testimonial  fund"  for  the  benefit  of  its  inventor  was  published  in 
the  Dental  Cosmos.  The  various  societies  throughout  the  country 
added  their  offerings  to  this  fund,  and  their  thanks  to  Dr.  Banuim 
for  the  benefit  he  had  conferred  on  the  profession  through  his 
invention.  The  matter  came  before  the  American  Dental  Asso- 
ciation at  its  meeting  in  Xashville  in  1870,  and  a  gold  medal,  the 
expense  of  which  was  volunteered  by  three  members,  was  voted  him, 
with  a  resolution  of  thanks  and  the  sum  of  one  thousand  dollars.* 
The  California  State  Dental  Association  f  presented  him  a  gold  medal, 
and  the  New  York  Odontological  Society,  with  members  of  the 
Massachusetts  Dental  Society  and  others,  gave  him  a  gold  watch  and 
chain  and  a  sum  of  money.  These  acts  prove  the  estimation  in  which 
this  appliance  is  held  by  the  profession.  It  is  almost  universally 
conceded  to  rank  with  the  greatest  advances  in  the  materiel  of  oper- 
ative dentistry. 

CUTTING    AND    DRILLING    INSTRUMENTS. 


I 


From  the  straight,  chisel-shaped  excavator  and  scaler  of  old  to  the 
modern  burring  engine  is  such  a  wide  space  for  progress  that  the  stu- 
dent of  dental  history  would  expect  to  find,  between  these  termini, 
many  and  curious  developments  in  the  mechanism  for  boring  and 
cutting  tooth-substance;  yet  there  are,  in  that  history,  only  four  di-  j 
visions  or  principles  of  mechanical  action  to  be  considered, — 1,  simple 
haiul-eutters  and  drills ;  2,  automatically  rotating  drills  driven  by 
hand-power ;  3,  the  same  driven  by  foot-power ;  and  4,  the  same 
with  the  power  also  automatic.  Of  all  forms,  except  the  last,  there 
are  or  have  been  several  exponents,  and  all,  except  the  second,  are 
now  in  use.  It  is  proposed  to  examine  these  in  the  order  given  | 
above,  ^vhich  is  also  nearly  the  order  of  their  appearance  in  dentistry. 

Between  those  of  the  first  variety  now  in  use,  and  such  as  were  , 
originally  employed,  the  chief  difference  is  in  the  size.  It  is  true  \ 
that  there  are  now  many  more  shapes  employed  than  formerly;  but  I 
this  fact  indicates,  not  change,  but  addition;  nearly  all  the  old  I 
shapes  being  still  in  existence.  .  The  enamel  and  other  chisels  are,        *> 


*  Transactions  American  Dental  Association  for  1870,  pp.  2G-27. 
t  Ibid,  for  1873,  p.  19. 


OPERATIVE   DENTISTRY.  "  115 

in  many  cases,  almost  reproductions  in  miniature  of  those  of  tlie  car- 
penter; while  the  scalers  (old,  especially)  vary  in  form  from  the 
machete  of  the  South-American  woodman,  through  modifications  of 
the  hatchet  and  the  pruning-hook,  to  certain  tools  of  the  ship-builder. 
The  drills  are  all  delicate  tools  for  metal,  as  seen  in  the  ordinary 
single  or  double-edged  "spear-point,"  the  flat  "bottoming  drill," 
the  round  or  pointed  "  counter-sink"  (burr),  and  the  new  "  twist- 
drill." 

The  second  principal  difference  which  exists  between  the  cutters 
of  now  and  then  is  in  the  fact  that,  wliere  now  each  instrument  has 
its  own  particular  hand-piece,  generally  one  in  material  and  work- 
manship with  itself,  it  was  then  the  mode  to  have  each  tool  separate, 
but  all  fitting  into  one  handle,  which  was  generally  of  different  mate- 
rial from  the  implement,  as  wood,  bone,  ivor}',  or  mother-of-pearl. 
The  last  two  were  in  the  greatest  demand,  and  were  often  adorned  by 
elegant  carving  and  even  with  jewels;  and  instrument-cases  were 
so  made  as  to  exhibit,  in  all  their  radiant  splendor,  the  then  costly 
implements  of  the  profession  to  the  Mondering  gaze  of  the  dazzled 
patient. 

The  scalers  Avere  originally  of  very  much  more  importance  than 
they  now  are,  and  bore  a  much  larger  numerical  proportion  to  the 
cutters.  It  must  be  remembered  that  cutting  was  at  first  only  little 
attempted — at  least,  in  comparison  with  modern  practice — and,  when 
done,  a  few  chisels  and  spear-drills  sufficed  for  the  necessities  of  the 
operator  and  of  the  case.  Nothing  so  clearly  indicates  the  radical 
change  in  modern  from  ancient  dental  practice  as  this  difference  in 
the  comparative  value  and  number  of  these  two  classes  of  imple- 
ments. 

The  drill  was  originally  and,  for  many  years  (even,  in  some  cases, 
to  the  present),  rotated  simi)ly  in  the  fingers  and  without  guards  or 
any  mechanism  for  the  protection  of  the  skin.  In  illustration  of  the 
extent  to  wliich  tliis  was  carried,  and  of  the  effects  jn-oduccd  by  it,  we 
will  instance  an  anecdote  of  Waite,  a  very  prominent  London  dentist,, 
in  1820.  It  is  related  by  E.  Family,  who  said  that,  while  in  England,, 
and  at  Brighton,  he  called  on  Charles  Bew,  "a  kind  of  hanger-on, 
crony  and  dentist,  of  the  Prince  of  Wales,"  who,  speaking  of  Waite, 

remarked,  "  ]My  lady was  with  me,  and  while  here  she  told  me 

that  AVaite  had  shown  her  the  knots  made  on  his  hands  in  stopi)ing 
teeth,"  to  which  he  said  he  replied,  "  Lord  bless  your  ladyship,  those 
knots  were  made  on  Waite's  hands  by  holding  on  to  the  straps  of  his 
master's  carriage."     Dr.  Parnily  comraendably  adds,  "  I  hope  that 


116  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

we  have  all  learned  or  shall  learn  how  these  callous  concretions  M-ere 
made  in  the  hand  of  the  justly  celebrated  London  dentist."* 

They  certainly  had  sufficient  time  allowed  them  in  which  to  do  so; 
for  it  was  not  until  1846  that  even  a  partial  change  in  the  method  of 
drill-handlino;  was  introduced.  This  consisted  in  the  finger-ring  and 
drill-socket  devised  by  A.  "Wcstcott,  Avhich  was  somewhat  generally 
adopted  by  the  younger  operators  of  the  time,  but  for  which  those 
who  had  i)racticed  for  years  by  the  old  method  found,  as  Mas  to  be 
expected,  little  occasion. 

The  above  date,  however,  does  not  express  a  time  anterior  to  the 
introduction  of  the  drill-stock;  although,  prior  to  it,  this  instrument 
was  in  use,  in  a  crude  form,  only  in  isolated  instances.  But  Dr. 
"NVestcott's  proposed  change  indicated  that  the  spirit  of.  innovation 
had  arisen;  and  accordingly  we  find  the  drill-stock  gradually  coming  | 
into  general  use  at  about  or  shortly  after  this  period. 

The  first  recorded  instrument  of  this  character  is  that  of  Dr.  J.  F. 
Flagg,  of  Boston,  which,  being  published  (in  the  Boston  Medical 
and  Surgical  Journal)  as  an  adjunct  to  his  method  of  root-drilling, 
has  been  regarded  as  invented  for,  and  at  the  time  of,  that  operation. f 
But  Dr.  Flagg  had  it  in  use  before  that  time,  for  he  speaks,  in  the 
article  in  question,  of  devising  for  root-drilling  "an  appendage  to 
my  drill-stock,"  and  also  says  that,  "In  most  of  these  operations 
I  have  used  the  simple  instrument  with  which  I  drill  the  roots  for 
setting  artificial  teeth,"  etc.  J 

Dr.  Flagg's  stock  was  the  simple  "  bow-drill "  of  the  watch-maker. 
Dr.  Maynard  devised  one  in  which  the  drill  was  rotated  by  alter- 
nately j)rcssing  and  releasing  a  stud  on  the  side  of  the  hand-piece, 
somewhat  similarly  to  the  modern  automatic  plugger  of  Home. 
This  was  designed  to  be  used  by  only  one  hand,  as  the  principal  ob- 
jection to  the  bow  form  was  that  it  required  for  operation  both  hands. 

Spencer's  drill,  introduced  in  1849,§  Mas  on  a  similar  plan;  the 
piston-button,  hoM'cver,  being  on  the  end.  The  tool  M^as  at  right 
angles  M'ith  the  body  of  the  instrument,  and  rotated  alternately  in 
either  direction  as  the  piston  rose  and  fell. 

In  1850,  Mr.  J.  D.  ChevalierU  devised  a  drill-stock  M^orked  by  a 

*  Amcriciin  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  1st  Series,  vol.  iii.  p.  5. 
f  Sie  Harris's  Dental  Dictionary,  p.  294. 

J  See  reprint  of  Dr.  Flagg's  paper  in  the  New  York  Dental  Recorder,  vol. 
i.  p.  121. 

§  New  York  Dental  Recorder,  vol.  iii.  p.  142. 
.11  Ibid.,  vol.  V.  p,  27, 


OPERATIVE   DENTISTRY.  117 

small  crank  and  bevel  gears.  The  tool  was  held  at  an  angle  of  forty- 
five  degrees  with  the  body  of  the  instrument,  and  could  be  inserted 
so  as  to  point,  at  that  angle,  either  toward  or  from  the  handle.  The 
rotation  was  steadily  in  either  direction  according  to  the  will  of  the 
'operator.     This  drill  required  both  hands. 

The  same  year  appeared  the  drill  of  INIr.  B.  B.  Alfred,*  also 
worked  by  a  crank  and  gears,  the  tool  at  right  angles  with  the  shaft. 

The  same  year  was  illustratedf  the  drill  (or  drills)  of  C.  11.  Dubs. 
These  were  piston  instruments,  the  tool  at  right  angles. 

The  same  year  was  introduced  the  drill-stock  of  John  Lewis, |  in 
which  the  tool  could  be  changed  from  a  line  parallel  with  the  shaft 
to  any  angular  presentation. 

The  same  year  came  Vi.  W.  H.  Thackston's  drill-stock, §  a  bow- 
drill  with  the  tool  at  right  angles  with  the  shaft. 

In  1858  appeared  the  greatest  improvement  until  that  time  in 
drilling  instruments, — ^Merry's  drill,  the  invention  of  Charles  Merry, 
of  St.  Louis.  This  implement  is  still  so  well  known  that  it  may 
be  superfluous  to  offer  even  a  limited  description.  There  were  two 
hand-pieces,  the  one  to  hold  the  instrument  in  place  and  having 
at  its  extremity  a  rotative  tool-holder,  and  the  other  to  drive  the, 
holder,  to  which  it  was  connected  by  a  flexible  coupling  or  universal 
joint  of  spirally  wound  wire.  The  tool  being  presented  in  any  de- 
•  sired  ])osition,  the  driving  handle  could  be  held  in  any  direction,  and 
its  rotation  by  the  fingers  of  the  other  (or,  in  some  cases,  the  same) 
hand  was  communicated  to  the  tool  through  the  flexible  joint. 

This  implement  obtained  very  great  popularity,  in  si)ite  of  the 
many  obvious  disadvantages  inseparable  from  its  use.  It  may  be 
said  to  have  rendered  possible  the  modern  dental  engine;  for,  through 
its  flexible  joint,  it  offered  a  means  for  conveying  power  from  a  pedal 
to  the  hand  without  interfering  with  the  free  motion  of  the  latter. 
Indeed,  the  second  pedal  engine  in  order  of  time,  and  the  first  to 
become  generally  used,  included,  as  its  cardinal  point,  this  very 
feature. 

The  third  division  of  dental  drilling  and  rotary  cutting  mechanism 
commences  with  G.  F.  Green's  pneumatic  engine.  This  appeared 
about  1868,  and  was  quite  generally  used  at  one  time  by  dentists, 


*  New  York  Dental  Recorder,  vol.  v.  p.  169. 

t  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  1st  Series,  vol.  x.  p   203. 

X  Ibid.,  p.  58,  and  Harris's  Dental  Dictionary,  p.  221. 

2  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  2d  Series,  vol.  i.  p.  101. 


118  HISTORY  OF   AMERICAN   DENTISTRY. 

especially  those  of  the  Western  States.  The  apparatus  was  worked 
by  a  f(K)t-l)cllows,  the  air  from  which  proceeded,  through  a  rubber 
tube,  to  the  hand-piece,  where  it  propelled  certain  mechanism  which 
rotated  tlie  drill. 

The  next  to  appear  on  the  scene,  and  the  first  of  the  "standard" 
class  of  engines,  was  the  "  Morrison,"  now  so  widely  used. 

This  was  introduced  to  the  public  aboiit  1870-71.  It  needs  no 
description  at  tliis  time.  Tlicre  are  traditional  accounts  of  a  pedal 
engine  invented  and  used  by  Dr.  John  B.  Beers,  of  Rochester,  as  far 
back  as  1842.  It  is  said  that  this  engine  also  workal  by  a  coiled 
steel  universal  joint.  Of  this,  however,  there  are  no  published 
records ;  and  it  can  hardly  be  justly  included  in  the  list  of  dental 
appliances,  especially  as  it  was  never  used  by  any  except  the  inventor. 
The  Morrison  was  the  first  offered  to  the  general  profession,  and 
was  very  quickly  and  widely  adopted.  For  some  years  it  had  no 
dangerous  competitor,  and  is  now  held  by  many  to  be  the  best  pedal 
engine  ever  devised. 

Almost  at  the  same  time.  Dr.  W.  G.  A.  Bonwill  devised  and  intro- 
duced his  engine.  Tliis  possesses  many  points  of  excellence,  and  one 
of  its  peculiarities  is  its  capability  of  being  converted  for  the  nonce 
into  an  office  or  laboratory  lathe.  It  has,  however,  never  obtained 
any  extended  use. 

In  1871  was  patented  Elliot's  "suspeasion"  engine.  This  appa-. 
ratus  presented  entire  novelty  in  all  things  except  the  fact  of  the 
power  still  being  pedal.  The  hand-piece  and  tool-holder,  suspended 
by  a  cord,  which  was  also  the  driving-cord,  by  SAvingiug  freely  in  all 
directions  avoided  the  necessity  of  a  universal  joint.  The  cord  was 
kept  tight  on  the  tool-pulley  by  an  equalizing  weight  and  Avheel 
(which  has  since  been  replaced  by  a  spring  fusee),  and  the  pedal  and 
driving-wheel  could  be  placed  in  any  position.  This  apparatus  is 
(juite  extensively  used,  and  is  much  prizetl  by  those  who  operate 
with  it. 

The  last,  "but  not  the  least"  on  the  list,  is  the  S.  S.  White 
engine.  This  also  dispenses  with  universal  joints;  but  is,  like  the 
Morrison,  a  "standard"  engine.  The  free  movement  of  the  hand- 
piece is  obtained  by  making  the  whole  arm  flexible  through  con- 
structing it  of  a  wire  rope  of  spring  temjicr.  At  first  the  strands 
of  this  rope  were  all  twisted  in  one  direction ;  thereby,  when  hard 
pressed,  ensued  what  was  called  "back-lash," — in  less  technical  lan- 
guage, the  rope  untwisted.  This  has  been  obviated  by  twisting  alter- 
nate strands  in  opposite  directions,  so  that  the  tendency  of  part  of  the 


OPERATIVE    DENTISTRY.  110 

arm  to  untwist  is  counteracted  by  the  opposite  movement  of  the  other 
part,  thus  making;  the  arm,  as  a  whole,  perfectly  ricrid  in  rotating, 
while  as  perfectly  flexible  in  lateral  or  other  directions  of  bodily 
movement. 

This  engine  is  thought  by  many  to  be  the  best  of  those  now  in 
use.  One  of  the  principal  causes  of  its  success  is  the  spring  pitman 
which  rotates  the  driving-wheel.  This  form  of  pitman  is  the  most 
perfect  for  light  pedal  power  known  to  mechanics,  causing  such 
equality  and  steadiness  of  movement  and  ease  of  working  as  is  not 
attainable  by  any  other  form. 

The  class  of  dental  engines  called  above  the  fourth  is  not  so,  how- 
ever, in  strict  order  of  time  of  introduction.  It  is  here  placed  so 
becaase  it  seems  naturally  the  crowning  capability  to  which  such  ap- 
paratus can  lay  claim,  and  because  the  final  improvement  in  engines 
very  probably  lies  in  this  direction.  The  tendency  of  the  whole  pro- 
fessional desire  as  regards  this  apparatus  appears  to  be  toward  some 
method  of  relieving  the  operator  from  personal  labor.  ]\Iany  noAV 
eifect  this  by  the  aid  of  an  assistant,  but  this  manner  of  overcoming 
the  difficulty  is  not  always  desirable,  and  the  real  solution  appears  to 
be  in  the  automatic  principle. 

The  first  attempt  in  this  direction  was  made  by  Mr.  G.  F.  Green, 
already  noticed  as  the  inventor  of  the  pneumatic  engine.  This  gen- 
tleman called  to  his  aid  electricity.  In  1856,  he  commenced  experi- 
menting in  this  direction,  and  after  some  years  of  effort  partially  con- 
quered the  difficulties  he  encountered,  and  produced  the  "electrical" 
burring  engine.  This  peculiar  machine  is,  as  stated,  not  an  entire 
solution  of  the  question  of  automatic  engines.  It  is  heavy,  and  the 
peculiar  form  he  gave  it  renders  it  unwieldy  to  use.  There  is  also  a 
lack  of  power  in  its  operation.  When  to  these  serious  objections  are 
added  the  difficulties  arising  from  a  want  of  general  knowledge  of  its 
principles  and  motive  power,  and  the  attendant  trouble  in  the  care  of 
the  necessary  battery,  it  is  not  surprising  that  this  engine  never  came 
into  any  considerable  use. 

The  fact  has  already  been  noticed  that  the  tendency  of  profes- 
sional feeling,  in  the  matter  of  engines,  is  at  present  toward  ridding 
the  operator  of  personal  labor.  This  is  further  exemplified  by  the 
growing  employment  of  automatic  i>ower  apart  from  the  engine 
itself.  The  applications  of  this  }n-inci[)le  in  use  are  mostly  (i^erhaps 
entirely)  either  "water  motors"  or  "electrical  motors."  Of  the  first 
there  are  several  kinds,  and  all  seem  to  give  satisfaction.  They  are, 
however,  only  generally  available  in  the  cities  and  larger  towns,  or 


120  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

where  the  nec&ssary  water  power  can  be  obtained  ;  and  tliis  will 
always  prevent  their  introduction  el.sewhere.  The  electrical  motors 
are  not  open  to  this  objection ;  but  they  must  nevertheless  sustain 
another  almost  if  not  quite  as  formidable;  for  "the  battery"  appears 
as  yet  to  constitute  a  very  great  obstiicle  to  their  use.  And,  indeed, 
even  were  this  overcome,  their  success,  at  least  for  the  present,  would 
be  doubtful.  They  are  not,  in  themselvesj  as  yet  near  to  their 
probable  ]ierfection  in  construction  or  in  principle,  and  present  many 
olyectionable  features  in  their  operation.  How  far  these  will  be 
overcome  remains  yet  to  be  seen;  in  the  mean  time,  they  are  used  in 
isolated  cases,  and  as  experiments,  but  it  would  be  hazardous  to  say 
that  they  will  remain  in  this  position  for  any  great  length  of  time. 

FILES,   WHEELS,   DISKS. 

The  first  instruments  used  in  the  removal  of  decayed  dentine,  after 
the  cutters,  were  those  which  operated  through  abrasion.  Of  these 
the  first,  and  until  late  years  the  principal,  was  the  file.  In  its  first 
forms  this  was  simply  the  ordinary  mechanical  instrument  sufficiently 
reduced  in  size ;  but  time  gave  it  many  changes  in  shape  and  method 
of  application,  of  most  of  which  it  will  be  needless  to  speak. 

The  principal  early  improvements  were  those  of  Dr.  E.  Town- 
send,  of  Philadelphia,  one  of  which  was  designed  for  the  adaptation 
of  pivot  crowns  to  the  roots.  This  was  secured  by  making  two  com- 
panion files,  one  convex,  the  other  concave,  both  of  the  same  curve ; 
the  former  ased  on  the  crown,  and  the  latter  on  the  root.  Dr. 
Townsend  also  devised  a  set  of  "finishing  files"  in  the  form  of  a 
straight  or  curved  smooth  central  portion  (for  a  handle),  carrying  at 
each  extremity  thin  curved,  oval,  and  other  shaped  file-blades.  These 
files  still  form  part  of  every  dental  outfit. 

Dr.  Harris,  of  Baltimore,  in  1833,  originated  a  form  of  file  for 
the  separation  of  molars,  to  avoid  the  then  common  use  of  the  file- 
carrier  for  this  purpose.*  These  were  about  one  and  one-half  inches 
in  length,  shaped  like  a  clock-pinion  file,  and  having  a  handle-like 
continuation,  bent  twice  so  as  to  form  an  ofiset  with  the  hand-part 
projecting  beyond.     These  files  are  also  still  in  use. 

The  loss  by  breakage  of  these  fragile  instruments,  and  the  general 
difficulty  experienced  in  a])plying  the  ordinary  forms  to  the  molars, 
induced  the  invention  of  the  filc-earricr.     The  first  recorded  form 

*  Harris's  Dental  Dictionary,  p.  28L 


OPERATIVE   DENTISTRY.  121 

of  this  instrument  is  that  devised  by  Dr.  A.  Westcott,  of  Syracuse.* 
It  consisted  of  a  handle  and  double-curved  arm  (to  bring  the  file 
again  in  line  with  the  handle);  from  the  extremity  of  which  pro- 
jected laterally  two  short,  mortised  pieces  between  which  the  file  was 
fitted ;  the  portion  of  the  arm  between  these  pieces  being  a  spring, 
which,  by  its  elasticity,  kept  the  files  in  jiosition.  With  this  instru- 
ment it  was  necessary  to  prepare  the  file  by  forming  tenons  on  its 
ends  to  fit  the  mortises  in  the  arm-pieces.  This  file-carrier  was  the 
first  in  which  the  files  were  held  by  their  extremities. 

In  1848  iNIr.  J.  D.  Chevalier  introduced  another  form  (on  the  main 
principle  above  named),  which  precluded  the  necessity  of  preparing 
the  files  especially  for  it,  and  allowed  the  use  of  broken  portions  of 
files,  being  adjustable  for  that  purpose.f  One  portion  of  this  instru- 
ment, the  arrangement  of  the  file-holding  buttons,  Avhich  allowed 
the  placing  the  file  at  any  perpendicular  angle,  was  the  invention  of 
Dr.  W.  H.  Elliott,  of  Montreal,  and  is  worthy  of  notice. 

Since  the  last  date  various  modifications  of  the  file-carrier  have 
been  introduced.  AVe  shall  notice,  however,  only  the  last, — that  of 
Mr.  E.  T.  Starr, — which  is  designed  for  use  with  the  S.  S.  White 
engine.  This  is  a  simple  and  compact  device,  the  reciprocating 
motion  being  obtained  through  a  crank  movement  operated  by  the 
rotating  flexible  arm  of  the  engine. 

The  introduction  of  wheels  or  disks  into  operative  dentistry  is 
quite  recent,  being  necessarily  dependent  on  the  advent  of  the  burr- 
inff-encrine:  but  the  date  of  first  use  of  revolving  cutters  cannot  be 
determined.  Dental  wheels  or  disks  probably  grew  imperceptibly 
and  simultaneously  in  many  hands  from  the  saw  burr.  The  various 
grinding  stones  were  first  used,  and  were  succeeded  by  the  shellac- 
and-emery  composition,  which,  in  turn,  has  given  way  to  the  corim- 
duni  wheels  of  Drs.  A.  L.  Northrop  and  R.  Arthur,  now  so  univer- 
sally known  and  used.  A  still  later  addition  to  the  list  is  the  disk 
of  W.  G.  A.  Bonwill,  a  compound  of  rubber  and  corundum  worked 
into  shape  and  afterward  vulcanized. 

In  certain  circumstances  the  presentation  of  a  disk  or  wheel  on  a 
straight  mandrel  in  the  desired  position  is  difficult,  and  apparatuses 
have  been  devised  to  meet  this  objection.  The  principal  of  these 
is  the  disk-carrier  of  Dr.  Hickman,  which,  at  some  slight  cost  of 
inconvenience,  meets  most  conditions.      Another  form,  very  lately 


*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  1st  Series,  vol.  vii.  p.  293. 
f  New  York  Dental  Kecorder,  vol.  iii.  p.  1. 


122  HISTORY    OP   AMERICAN   DENTISTRY. 

introduced,  for  use  M'ith  S.  S.  White's  engine,  appears  to  be  an  im- 
provonicnt.  In  Hickman's  the  presentation  of  tlic  disk  is  rendered 
variable  bv  a  simple  mechanism  which  admits  of  lateral  movement 
at  several  angles,  but  which  must  be  adjusted  while  not  in  use.  In 
White's  the  disk  runs  immovably  at  a  certain  angle  with  its  shaft, 
and  changes  in  its  position  are  instantly  secured  by  simply  rotating 
the  shaft  or  hand-piece  without  ceasing  to  drive  the  disk.  A  valu- 
able addition  to  this  instrument  is  a  collar,  pressure  on  Avhich  in- 
stantly stops  the  motion  of  the"  disk,  while  the  engine  may  continue 
its  speed. 

FILLING    INSTRUMENTS. 

General  regard  as  to  variations  of  form,  size,  purpose,  or  adapta- 
tion of  filling  instruments  is  a  thing  of  comparatively  modern  growth. 
It  was  thought,  even  fifty  years  ago,  that  almost  any  straight,  stiff 
tool  was  sufficient  to  the  placing  of  any  filling  which  it  would  reach, 
and  for  those  not  accessible  by  such,  a  curve  in  the  shank  quickly 
rendered  the  instrument  a  proper  one.  It  must  be  remembered  that, 
at  that  period,  almost  the  only  cavities  filled  were  in  the  crowns  or 
readily- accessible  surfaces  of  teeth.  Approximal  decay  was  almost 
invariably  removed  by  the  file,  which,  of  course,  left  no  cavity 
behind  it. 

It  was  believed  that  much  force  was  necessary  in  order  to  properly 
condense  a  filling,  and  the  instruments  were  made  correspondingly 
strong  and  broad-pointed.  They  were  generally  entirely  without 
serrations,  and  with  large  and  strong  handles. 

With  the  advent  of  "  sponge"  or  "  crystal "  gold  an  impetus  was 
given  to  the  invention  of  new  forms  of  filling  instruments.  Dr. 
Dwindle  devised  a  set  for  the  particular  manipulation  of  this  form 
of  gold.  Previously,  however,  many  additions  of  shape  had  crept  in 
quite  insensibly,  as  it  became  the  vogue  to  form  and  fill  proximal 
cavities. 

As  the  culmination  of  the  idea  of  necessarily  great  force  in  intro- 
ducing fillings,  "plugging  forceps"  made  their  appearance.  These 
were,  at  first,  simple  and  of  limited  variety ;  but  they  soon  took  on 
many  forms,  and  were  very  extensively  used  for  a  time.  The  most 
marked  variation  in  them  wius  the  swivel  fulcrum  and  changeable 
points,  introduced  about  1842. 

An  illustration  of  the  extent  to  which  the  "  force"  idea  was  carried 
will  be  found  in  the  experiments  of  Dr.  J.  D.  White,  as  late  as  1850, 


f 


I 


OPERATIVE   DENTISTRY.  123 

with  a  dynamometer  constructed  for  the  purpose.*  This  gentleman 
found  that  the  estimates  of  dentists  in  general  as  to  the  degree  of  force 
used  by  them  in  condensing  a  filling  were  much  too  high.  Some 
boasted  that  they  often  applied  from  sixty  to  eighty  pounds'  pressure 
on  a  filling.  Dr.  White  corrected  this  estimate  by  sending  his  dy- 
namometer to  the  muscular  operator ;  who  thereupon  found  that  he 
had  been  using  only  about  twenty-five  pounds'  pressure.  Dr.  AVhite 
says,t  "  It  is  a  difficult  matter  for  us  to  apply  more  than  ten  or  twelve 
pounds'  pressure  on  a  superior  molar  of  a  patient  of  that  many  years 
of  age,  or  a  nervous  and  yielding  patient.  .  .  .  But  when  we  have  an 
older  patient,  or  a  hard  head  and  stiff  neck,  and  a  molar  Avell  set  in 
a  well-developed  jaw,  and  the  patient  firmly  seated  in  the  chair,  we 
can  apply  as  much  as  twenty-five,  and  even,  in  some  cases,  thirty 
pounds." 

TJie  introduction  of  cohesive  foil  rendered  necessary  a  radical 
change  in  points  in  general.  This  change  consisted  in  the  serration 
of  the  points.  At  first,  for  serration  read  toothing;  for  Dr.  Arthur 
recommended  "two  or  three"  points  or  teeth  as  being  the  proper 
number.  These  were  large  and  deep  in  the  original  forms,  but  grew 
smaller  and  more  numerous  as  experience  revealed  their  frequent 
breakage  and  other  disadvantages.  The  points  of  pluggers,  in  fact, 
have  gone  through  the  range  of  intermediates  betAveen  smooth  and 
blunt,  and  sharp  and  single--pomtGd,  and  back  again.  From  the  first 
form  to  two  or  three  deep  serrations  was  an  easy  step;  and  some 
went  further  and  converted  the  few  sharjj  teeth  into  one, — in  other 
words,  they  pointed  their  pluggers.  These  were  extreme  cases,  how- 
ever, and  not  general.  The  main  tendency  was  from  a  few  deep 
serrations  to  a  multiplicity  of  shallow  ones,  and  at  this  point  the 
majority  of  the  profession  now  stands.  The  extremists  of  to-day 
are  represented  again  by  perfectly  smooth  points ;  and  one  gentle- 
man has  advocated  the  use  of  ivory  pluggers. 

The  most  radical  change  in  the  filling  of  teeth  has  been  wrought 
by  the  mallet.  The  introduction  of  this  instrument  has  been  er- 
roneously ascribed  to  Dr.  Wra.  H.  Atkinson,  of  New  York ;  in  fact, 
Dr.  Atkinson  revived  the  use  of  an  old  and  discarded  im])lement. 
Koecker,!  writing  in  1826,  thus  expresses  his  disapprobation  of  a 
certain  class  of  operators :  "  But  what  is  more  surprising  and  repug- 
nant, after  the  tooth  is  thus  prepared  for  the  reception  of  the  stop- 

*  Dental  News  Letter,  vol.  ix.  p.  100.  t  I^i^. 

I  Principles  of  Dental  Surgery,  London,  1826,  p.  399. 


124  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

ping,  some  operators  actually  employ  a  hammer  and  'punch  to  drive 
the  metal  into  the  cavity  of  the  tooth.  I  have  seen  the  most  alarm- 
ing consequences  proceed  from  this  barbarous  practice,  particularly 
in  the  cases  of  several  ladies  who  consulted  me  in  Philadelphia.* 
INIanV  of  their  teeth,  especially  the  incisors,  or  front  teeth  and  cuspi- 
dati,  had  been  ])lu<r»ed  in  this  manner.  Some  of  them  had  alrcadv 
lost  their  vitality,  and  were  discolored  when  I  saw  them,  and  others 
were  so  tender,  from  the  violence  that  had  been  used,  that  the  least 
pressure  u])on  them  caused  exquisite  pain."  It  is  evident  from  the 
above,  that  if  Dr.  Atkinson  cannot  be  accorded  the  primary  employ- 
ment of  the  mallet,  yet  he  deserves  credit  for  teaching  its  use  in  a  less 
"  barbarous  "  manner. 

Fitch  also  (1829),t  following  Koecker,  mentions  a  case  of  splitting 
an  incisor  tooth  by  the  use  of  the  mallet ;  and  concludes  by  observ- 
ing that  he  is  "  jiersuaded  that  no  judicious  surgeon-dentist  wall  ever 
adopt  this  very  objectionable  mode  of  performing  the  operation." 

The  first  official  recorded  explication  of  the  use  of  the  mallet  by 
Dr.  Atkinson  was  in  1861,  before  the  Pennsylvania  Association  of 
Dental  Surgeons.  The  editor  of  the  Transactions  mentions!  the  "en- 
tertaining and  instructive  character"  of  the  proceedings,  and  names 
as  "the  principal  objection"  to  its  employment  "the  necessity  of 
always  requiring  an  assistant  to  use  it  properly."  This  objection  was 
soon  found  to  be  one  of  semblance  and  not  of  reality.  The  American 
Dental  Association,  at  the  meeting  of  1866,  passed  a  resolution  of 
thanks  to  Dr.  Atkinson  "  for  the  introduction  of  the  mallet  in  dental 
practice,  and  for  his  kind  and  efficient  teachings  in  its  use."§  In 
acknowledo-ino;  this  recoo-nition,  Dr.  Atkinson  referred  his  first  knowl- 
edge  of  the  instrument  to  Dr.  E.  INIerrit,  of  Pittsburgh,  in  1838. 

Upon  the  introduction  of  the  mallet,  the  attention  of  dental  invent- 
ors was  immediately  turned  toward  making  the  principle  automatic. 
Who  was  the  first  that  presented  such  an  instrument  it  is  exceedingly 
difficult  (and  perhaps  impossible)  now  to  determine. 

In  quick  succession  (not  here  exactly  given)  apj)eared  Foote's, 
Taylor's,  Home's,  Salmon's,  and  the  Snow  &  Lewis  automatic  plug- 
gers,  all  on  the  spring  and  (except  Home's)  "touch-blow"  principle; 
Baxter's  and  Pomeroy's,  also  spring  instruments ;  Bannister's,  Green's, 

*  As  Koecker  left  Philadelphia  for  England  in  1822,  the  use  of  the  mallet  in 
this  country  is  therefore  considerably  anterior  to  that  date, 
t  A  System  of  Dental  Surgery,  New  York,  1829,  p.  410. 
X  Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  iii.  p.  258. 
I  Transactions  of  the  American  Dental  Association,  186G,  p.  242. 


OPERATIVE    DENTISTRY.  125 

and  Gaylord's,  on  the  pneumatic  principle ;  Buckingham's,  operated 
by  the  White  dental  engine;  and  the  "electric  mallets"  of  Green, 
Bonwill,  Jack,  and  Webb.  The  possibility  of  such  a  list  was  cer- 
tainly not  contemplated  by  Dr.  Koecker  when  he  deprecated  the  use 
of  the  "hammer  and  punch." 

Those  of  the  above  which  are  first  named  as  on  the  spring  and 
touch-blow  principle,  have  been  more  largely  used  than  any  of  the 
others.  In  particular  esteem  and  widest  employment  are  held  the 
Salmon  and  Snow  &  Lewis  pluggcrs.  Home's  is  a  very  excellent  in- 
strument, though  but  few  have  ever  been  made.  Baxter's  is  a  quaint 
device,  allowing  the  use  of  the  ordinary  plugging-tool.  Pomeroy's 
is  well  recommended.  Bannister's  and  Green's  pneumatic  pluggcrs 
never  were  widely  used.  Gaylord's  is  a  new  device,  and  may  be 
operated  either  by  a  foot-bellows  or  bulb,  or  by  attachment  to  the 
Morrison  dental  engine.  Buckingham's  is  attached  to  the  Wliite 
dental  engine,  which  is  run  the  same  as  for  burring. 

Green's  electric  mallet  has  proved  inefficient  for  general  use. 
Bonwill's  wa»s  the  first  to  be  introduced  which  attained  to  some  con- 
siderable employment.  That  of  Dr.  Louis  Jack,  which  he  has  gen- 
erously given  to  the  profession,  presents  novelty  of  action  and 
mechanism.  The  last  introduced  is  that  of  Dr.  Webb.  This  is  a 
modification,  in  essentials,  of  Bonwill's  instrument,  but  much  lighter 
and  somewhat  easier  of  manipulation. 

Of  this  class  of  instruments  it  may  be  said,  as  of  electrical  motive 
power  in  general,  that  it  is  not  yet  near  perfection.  The  field  for 
improvement  is  very  wide,  and  will  eventually  be  thoroughly  culti- 
vated. It  is  an  encouraging  indication  for  the  future  of  electrical 
plugging  instruments,  that  there  is  a  very  general  verdict  in  favor  of 
their  character  of  blow  and  operation  over  all  other  devices  for  the 
same  purpose. 

INSTRUMENTS   FOR  EXTRACTION. 

The  forceps  is  probably  the  oldest  tooth-extra'cting  instrument 
known.  A  leaden  forceps  was  placed  in  the  temple  of  Apollo  at 
Delphos,  by  Erasistratus,  300  B.C.;  and  Celsus  mentions  it  as  im 
implement  of  extraction  100  B.C.  The  first  form  of  the  tooth- 
forceps  was  that  of  the  ordinary  mechanical  instrument  so  named; 
and  it  continued  thus,  with  very  slight  (if  any)  variation,  for  hun- 
dreds of  years.  In  fact,  the  first  idea  of  improvement  in  tooth- 
extractors  seems  to  have    been    toward    the    production  of    a   new 


126  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

instrument  ratlier  than  in  the  improvement  of  the  forceps.  The 
pelican  (whieli  ninch  resembled  the  skid  used  by  kimbermen)  was  the 
first  form  taken  by  progress  in  this  direction.  From  the  pelican 
grew  the  kei/  of  Garengeot,  invented  early  in  the  eighteenth  century. 

The  pelican  has  been  known  in  this  country  only  as  a  curiosity. 
The  kc}',  ho\\ever,  has  obtained  here, as  everywhere, a  very  extended 
use. 

The  key  was  first  made  with  a  straight  shank  or  handle,  but  the 
double  elbow  was  afterward  added,  both  to  clear  the  interfering  teeth 
and  to  add  power.  Various  other  improvements  have  been  made, 
chief  of  which  arc,  the  movable  attachment  of  the  hook,  which  allows 
changes  of  hooks  to  suit  difi'erent  cases,  and  the  form  and  position 
of  the  bolster  or  fulcrum.  The  principal  advances  in  the  latter 
direction  have  been,  first,  making  the  fulcrum  round  ;  and,  second, 
making  it  movable. 

This  instrument,  however,  has  long  since  almost  fallen  into  disuse, 
the  great  disadvantages  attendant  on  it  oeing  almost  entirely  abro- 
gated by  the  employment  of  the  improved  styles  of  forceps. 

Of  the  punch  and  elevator  it  is  hardly  necessary  now  to  speak, 
except  as  noting  the  fact  that  they  were  considerably  employed  in 
the  early  days  of  American  dentistry.  They  still  form  part  of  com- 
plete sets  of  extracting  instruments,  but  are  little  employed. 

The  forceps  has  undergone  so  many  changes  that  it  will  be  impos- 
sible to  notice  more  than  the  most  prominent.  Like  the  tortoise  in 
the  fable,  this  instrument  began  in  the  race  of  improvement  with  a 
fair  start,  and  was  at  first  outstripped  by  the  temporarily  more 
favored  turidcey ;  but  it  has  succeeded  in  at  last  driving  all  its  com- 
petitors from  the  field,  and  is  now  almost  the  only  instrument  used 
for  the  extraction  of  teeth. 

The  first  reasonably  complete  set  of  forceps  recorded  was  the  work 
of  Dr.  J.  F.  Flagg,  in  1828.  These  were  very  largely  used,  and  some 
of  the  forms  are  still  employed.  Physick's  forceps,  a  combination  of 
the  lever  and  wedge,  form  even  now  a  part  of  every  complete  set, 
and  are  sntticicntly  well  known  to  require  only  slight  description. 
His  impn)vemcntwas  in  constructing  the  beaks  like  two  curved  in- 
clined planes,  opening  laterally,  and  intended  for  the  wisdom-teeth. 
Maynard's  im})rovemcnt  consisted  in  placing  a  point  on  the  outer  jaw 
of  the  instrument "  for  perforating  the  alveolus  between  the  outer  roots 
of  the  teeth"*  (upper  molars).     Elliot's  key-forceps  had  the  beaks  of 

*  Harris's  Dictionary  of  Dental  Science,  p.  302. 


OPERATIVE   DENTISTRY.  127 

a  pair  of  forceps  and  the  handle  of  the  key,  "one  beak  serving  as  a 
hook,  wliile  the  other  is  represented  by  a  movable  fulcrum.'''*  Elliot, 
Pease,  and  Chevalier  each  devised  excising  and  dividing  forceps. 

In  1844  Dr.  S.  P.  Hullihen  described,  in  the  American  Journal 
of  Dental  Science  (vol.  iv.  p.  254),  a  combination  of  screw  and  for- 
ceps Avhich  he  had  invented.  Tiiis  instrument,  designed  only  for  the 
extraction  of  roots,  was  much  esteemed,  but  was  capable  of  improve- 
ment, which  was  added  by  Mr.  J.  D.  Chevalier  in  1847t  and  by  Dr. 
C.  H.  Dubs  in  1848,  the  latter  being  patented  in  that  year.  Upon 
the  introduction  of  Dr.  Dubs's  patent,  he  claimed  (or  had  claimed 
for  him)  at  least  all  the  credit  to  which  he  was  entitled  for  his  inven- 
tion ;  and  a  controversy  was  initiated  as  to  the  addition  of  the  spring 
and  ratchet, — which  constituted  the  improvement  claimed  by  Dr. 
Dubs,  and  was  claimed  by  J.  D.  Chevalier.  It  soon  died  out,  how- 
ever, and  Hullihen's  and  Dubs's  screw-forceps  are  now  in  use,  each 
for  its  proper  cases  and  under  its  own  merits. 

Colburn's  adjusting  forceps  was  introduced  in  1851.J  This  im- 
provement consisted  in  a  capability  of  elongating  either  beak,  for 
adaptation  to  such  teeth  as  were  decayed  on  one  side  so  far  below  the 
gum  as  to  afford  a  very  uneven  and  precarious  hold  to  equal-beaked 
iustruments. 

The  above  are  believed  to  be  the  principal  variations  in  this  instru^ 
ment  devised  in  this  country.  The  ])resent  forms  embrace  almost 
every  possible  variety  of  style,  hold,  beaks,  presentation,  and  capa- 
bility of  use. 

The  screw  has  attained  to  a  considerable  use  in  such  cases  as  are 
suited  to  it.  These  are  somewhat  rare,  however,  and  this  cannot  be 
considered  a  very  common  instrument.  We  shall  mention  only  one 
of  its  variations,  comprised  in  the  screw  of  Dr.  C.  S.  Dickinson. 
This  remarkable  invention  is  figured  on  page  119  of  the  fourth  vol- 
ume of  the  New  Yorh  Dental  Recorder,  but  is  extremely  difficult  to 
describe  without  illustration.  We  may  say,  that  it  pretty  closely  re- 
sembles that  variety  of  cork-screw  in  which  the  screw  moves  in  a  tube 
which  rests  on  the  neck  of  the  bottle,  and  into  which  the  cork  is  drawn 
by  a  secondary  screw,  the  latter  being  replaced,  in  Dr.  Dickinson's  in- 
vention, by  a  lateral  ratchet  and  handle.  We  cannot  learn  that  this 
somewhat  complex  instrument  ever  obtained  any  very  extended  use. 


*  Iliirris's  Dictionnry  of  Dental  Sciftnce,  p.  425. 

t  New  York  Dental  Recorder,  vol.  iv.  p.  62. 

%  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  2d  Scries,  vol.  ii.  p.  113. 


128  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 


THE    OPERATING    CIIAIK. 

This  important  accessory  in  operative  dentistry  is  (at  least  as  now 
seen)  a  comparatively  modern  invention.  The  dental  chairs  of  one 
hnndred,  and  even  of  fifty  years  ago,  differed  very  slightly  from  the 
ordinary  domestic  article,  and  that  difference  existed  only  in  isolated 
instances,  the  main  addition  being  some  provision  at  the  back  for  the 
reception  of  the  patient's  head.  No  provision  was  made  for  any 
alteration  in  height  or  other  position.  jSIany  practitioners  of  early 
days,  to  secure  some  measure  of  the  latter  capability,  used  an  ordinary 
rocker,  which  was  susceptible,  at  least,  of  forward  and  backward 
movements. 

A  particular  description  of  the  improvements  in  this  article  will 
not  be  attempted,  as  such  would  be  of  slight  value,  in  any  case,  and 
also  mainly  unintelligible  without  illustration.  Only  the  principal 
advances  toward  present  perfection  will  receive  attention. 

As  has  been  stated,  the  first  step  in  the  adaptation  of  the  ordinary 
household  article  to  dental  purposes  was  the  addition  of  a  head-rest, 
which  was  first  fixed,  and  then  movable  in  a  i'orward  or  backward 
rotation.  The  universal  movement  is  the  invention  of  comparatively 
late  years. 

The  next  necessity  discovered  and  supplied,  was  the  capability  of 
change  of  height  of  the  seat ;  and  many  and  curious  have  been  the 
devices  for  the  production  of  this  effect.  Almost  simultaneously 
variation  of  position,  first  of  the  back  and  then  of  the  seat,  was 
effected. 

The  first  chair  which  seems  to  have  contained  all  these  improve- 
ments was  that  of  M.  "W.  Ilanchett.  This  chair  had  a  central  sup- 
porting screw  under  the  seat,  to  which  the  screw  was  hinged  by 
gudgeons  at  the  ends  of  horizontally-projecting  arms,  thus  allowing 
the  tii)ping  of  the  seat  and  back  backward  and  forward  on  these 
gudgeons,  the  whole  being  held  in  the  desired  i)osition  by  notched 
iron  semicircles  })laying  in  a  cogged  wheel  controlled  by  a  winch  and 
ratchet.  The  elevation  was  accomplished  by  turning  the  seat  on  the 
screw  after  the  manner  of  a  piano-stool.*  This  chair  was  introduced 
in  1848. 

In  1849,  F.  Searle,  of  Springfield,  Massachusetts,  constructed  a 
curious  mechanism  for  the  raising  and  lowering  of  the  seat.f  The 
upper  part,  consisting  of  seat,  back,  and  arms,  was  separated  from 


I 


*  New  York  Dental  Recorder,  vol.  iii.  p,  47.  f  Ibid.,  vol.  iv.  p.  75. 


Operative  dentistry.  129 

the  legs  and  lower  frame  by  an  intermediate  frame,  the  back  part  of 
which  was  hinged  to  the  lower  back  edge  of  the  seat,  and  the  front 
part  similarly  attached  to  the  upper  front  edge  of  the  leg-frame.  By 
tipping  the  seat  on  the  front  hinges  it  was  inclined  forward,  the  back 
hinges  not  then  being  able  to  act,  and  the  reverse  movement  was 
secured  by  the  back  hinges;  and  when  both  hinges  were  operated 
the  effect  was  to  raise  the  whole  seat  vertically,  the  intermediate 
frame  then  taking  the  same  position,  with  regard  to  the  seat  and  leg- 
frame,  as  that  of  tiie  diagonal  stroke  to  the  horizontal  ones  in  the 
letter  Z.  The  different  positions  were  attained  and  held  by  cogged 
iron  quadrants. 

In  the  chair  of  C.  H.  Eccleston,  the  seat  was  placed  on  })owerful 
steel  springs,  the  tension  of  which  was  ,upward,  and  a  vertical  rod 
Avas  attached  to  the  centre  of  the  under  side  of  the  seat  and  passed 
between  two  guides,  in  one  of  which  was  a  strong  set-screw.  When 
this  screw  was  loose,  the  springs  at  once  elevated  the  seat  to  its  highest 
point,  drawing  up  with  it  the  rod,  Avhich  altitude  could  be  reduced 
by  2)>^essmg  the  seat  dowmcard,  and  fastening  it  in  the  desired  place 
by  tightening  the  set-screw  on  the  retaining  rod.  The  weight  of  the 
patient  must  have  been  a  considerable  factor  in  the  operating  of  this 
mechanism.  The  back  tip])ed  forward  or  backward  on  a  hinge-pin 
passed  laterally  through  its  lower  portion  and  the  tops  of  the  posterior 
legs. 

In  1850,  Mr.  J.  D.  Chevalier,  of  New  York,  invented  and  sold  a 
"portable  head-rest,"  for  attachment  to  any  ordinary  chair.  This 
was  not  only  extremely  convenient  for  itinerants,  but  it  was  also 
perhaps  the  most  com[)letc  head-rest  then  in  use.  It  was  susceptible 
of  backward,  forward,  and  lateral  rotating  movements,  ^nd  of  being 
raised  or  lowered  vertically;  all  of  which  cannot  be  said  of  any 
other  dental  head-rest  of  the  time. 

These  are  examples  of  the  modes  of  progress  toward  the  present 
status  of  the  dental  operating  chair.  It  is  not  necessary  to  speak  of 
the  various  elegant  and  ingenious  modern  articles.  The  Archer, 
Perkins,  Morrison,  Harris,  O.  C.  White,  and  other  forms  are  uni- 
versally employed,  and  their  excellencies  everywhere  acknowledged. 


10 


TREATMENT  OF  THE  MORE  IMPORTANT  DIS- 
EASES, INJURIES,  AND  NATURAL  DEFECTS  OF 
THE  ORAL  CAVITY. 


In  former  sections  have  been  considered  the  methods  of  iiractice 
^vllich  liave  been,  from  time  to  time,  adopted  in  the  more  common 
abnormal  conditions  wliich  occur  to  the  teeth.  In  this  will  be  cur- 
sorily reviewed  the  principal  methods  of  treating  the  rarer  cases  of 
disease  and  natural  defects  in,  and  accidental  injuries  to,  the  mouth 
and  associate  parts. 

In  doing  this,  it  is  no  part  of  the  design  to  include  the  labors  of 
the  surgeon  per  se  in  these  directions,  although  it  is  very  difficult  to 
exclude  them  entirely;  but  to  present  only  such  operations  as  may  be 
said  to  belong  to,  and  be  a  part  of,  the  possible  operations  of  the 
dental  practitioner. 

In  the  earlier  years  of  general,  as  well  as  of  American  dentistry, 
there  seems  to  have  been  a  feeling  that  professional  aims  should  be  in 
the  direction  of  surgery,  rather  than  of  the  parent  branch,  medicine. 
This  is  evidenced  in  many  ways;  not  the  least  of  which  is  the  ap- 
pellation of  "surgeon-dentist,"  or  later,  "dental  surgeon,"  which  was 
the  self-given  distinction  of  what  was,  in  reality,  a  craft  and  not  a 
profession.  Then,  as  now,  truly  surgical  practice  was  confined  to  a 
few  of  the  name;  the  large  majority  of  oral-surgical  cases  being 
managed  by  the  general  practitioner.  Hence  it  is,  that  in  the  writings 
of  our  older  dentists,  although  they  are  named,  almost  universally, 
treatises  on  "dental  surgery,"  there  is  found  little  of  value, — indeed, 
often  nothing, — pertaining  to  such  lesions  as  are  indicated  by  the 
above  heading;  and  for  the  surgical  treatment  of  the  more  serious 
oral  diseases,  reference  must  be  ha<l  to  the  literature  of  that  specialty, 
or  of  medicine. 

Into  the  causes  of  this  it  is  not  here  necessary  to  inquire.  The 
fact  itself  forms  the  excuse  for  ])aiu'ity  in  accounts  of  such  cases  and 
methods  of  treatment  as  would  have  sanctioned  to  the  dentist  of  old, 
130 


TREATMENT   OF    DISEASES,  ETC.,  OF  THE    ORAL    CAVITY.       131 

had  he  received  and    practiced  them,  the  use  of  the  title   he   had 
adopted  as  representative  of  his  professional  status. 

Confining  tlie  consideration  of  tlie  general  subject  strictly  to 
American  authors,  the  first  to  be  noticed  will  be  the  few  princijKil 
diseases,  such  as  tumors,  fungous  growths,  and  lesions  •  of  the 
antrum. 

Woofendale,  although  his  book  was  published  in  London,  has  in 
this  work  ahvays  been  included  in  the  list  of  American  dentists,  since 
he  spent  a  considerable  portion  of  his  professional  existence  here.  Of 
disease  of  the  antrum  he  writes,* — *'I  am  of  opinion  that  this  com- 
plaint rarely  happens  from  any  other  cause  than  the  inflammatory 
tooth-ache,  extending  or  being  confined  to  the  periosteum  of  the 
socket,  which  terminates  in  suppuration,  and  penetrates  and  dis- 
charges into  the  nntnim  maxillare.  ...  By  (a  case  stated)  I  am  led 
to  suspect,  that  a  caries  of  the  palate  bone  may  sometimes  be  the 
result  of  the  inflammatory  tooth-ache  from  the  lodgment  of  matter 
[pus]  (as  in  the  case  here  related);  which,  when  in  an  acrid  state, 
from  confinement,  and  in  length  of  time,  may  frequently  injure  and 
destroy  this  bone."  This  dentist  treated  the  case  of  which  he  speaks 
(abscess  of  the  antrum  of  High  more)  by  extraction  of  the  second 
molar  and  piercing  its  socket  with  a  probe,  and  topical  application  of 
some  remedies  which  he  does  not  particularize.  This  single  disease 
and  case  is  the  only  one  he  mentions  which  appears  to  take  rank 
out  of  the  ordinary  character  of  daily  practice. 

James  directs f  "decoction  of  bark,  or  diluted  tincture  of  myrrh 
to  be  frequently  injected  into  the  cavity"  of  the  antrum,  through  an 
opening  in  the  socket  of  the  second  molar. 

L.  S.  Parmly  writes,^  "When  the  inflammation  of  the  teeth  and 
gums  of  the  upper  jaw  is  long  continued  and  very  considerable, 
^yhether  proceeding  from  accident,  or  from  the  natural  eilects  of 
disease,  it  is  often  communicated  to  the  lining  or  investing  (membrane 
of  the)  maxillary  sinus.  ...  As  soon  as  the  symptoms  of  this  dis- 
ease are  discovered  (a  fact  exceedingly  difficult  to  ascertain  till  matter 
is  actually  formed),  the  great  point  is  to  give  it  a  free  opening  or  dis- 
charge. The  readiest  way  of  doing  this,  is  to  extract  the  middle 
grinder  or  molares,  the  situation  of  which  is  immediately  under  the 
maxillary  cavity,  and  afterwards  to  pierce  through  the  socket  with 


*  Woofendale  on  the  Teeth,  p.  61  et  seq. 

f  A  Treatise  on  the  Management  of  the  Tfcth,  p.  121. 

X  A  Practical  Guide  to  the  Management  of  the  Teetli,  p.  170. 


lo2  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAN   DENTISTRY. 

a  smjill  trocliar  to  the  sinus.  The  opening  thus  made  should  be 
preserved  lor  some  time,  and  detergent  applications  occasionally 
injected  with  a  syringe,  till  every  appearance  of  discharge  sub- 
sides. This  state  of  the  antrum,  independent  of  the  diseases  of 
the  teeth,  has  often  been  produced  by  the  lodgment  of  ^vorms  or 
insects.  They  are  conceived  to  have  had  their  ovse,  or  eggs,  de- 
posited in  the  nostril,  or  to  have  been  drawn  in  with  the  breath 
into  the  nose,  and  thus  conveyed  into  the  antrum.  Their  removal, 
when  discovered,  is  to  be  accomplished  by  the  ojieration  above  men- 
tioned, and  the  use  of  oily  or  other  inj^ections,  till  they  are  entirely 
exterminated." 

Of  morbid  groAvths  of  the  gums  the  same  author  Avrites  as  follows: 
"The  irritation  produced  by  decayed  teeth,  on  the  circulation  of  the 
gum-ve&sels,  is  often  the  cause  of  a  preternatural  g^o^vth  of  the  gums 
by  Avhich  excrescences  or  tumors  form  on  them  of  various  sizes. 
Carious  stumps  are  the  most  frequent  source  of  this  morbid  growth ; 
for,  if  the  socket  is  not  close  at  the  bottom,  a  protrusion  takes  place, 
which  makes  the  edges  of  the  gums  grow  irregularly  over  it,  and 
thus,  by  the  pressure  of  the  sharp  edges  of  the  stumps,  a  constant 
soreness  and  inflammation  is  kept  up ;  the  soft  parts  assume  a  dis- 
eased action,  and  the  gums  rapidly  increase  in  size.  An  enlargement 
of  this  kind  will  often  equal  the  size  of  a  ^valnut,  and  no  cure  can 
take  place  till  the  cause,  or  irritating  edges,  be  removed;  on  this  being 
accomplished,  and  the  fang  repaired,  the  fulness  of  the  vessels  is 
taken  off  by  the  hemorrhage  accompanying  this  operation,  while  the 
morbid  growth  or  enlargement,  from  its  fungous  nature,  soon  xlecays, 
and  the  gum  is  reduced.  At  other  times  tumors  form  on  the  gums 
without  any  evident  cause,  and  unconnected  with  the  state  of  the 
teeth.  .  .  .  AVhen  troublesome,  their  removal  should  be  attemjited 
either  by  excision  or  ligature.  Where  a  ligature  can  be  applied  it 
is  the  safest  method.  .  .  .  Other  tumors  of  a  different  nature  form 
on  the  gums,  which  are  distinguished  by  their  particular  softness  or 
disposition  to  bleed.  Such  tumors  are  generally  the  consequence  of 
a  diseased  jaw-bone ;  and  ....  no  cure  can  be  effected  without  the 
removal  of  the  cause.  If,  however,  they  arise  only  from  the  fangs 
of  the  tooth  being  in  so  very  diseased  a  state  as  to  have  occasioned  a 
destruction  of  })art  of  the  alveolar  process,  then  a  cure  can  be  effected 
only  by  extracting  the  diseased  tooth,  and  if,  on  examining  the  socket, 
it  be  found  rough  and  denuded  of  its  periosteum,  a  Aveak  solution  of 
nitrous  acid  applied  to  it  with  lint  and  frequently  renewed,  will  cause 
;ni   exfoliation  of  the  diseased  jaw-bone,  and  the  tumor  will  be  re- 


i 


TREATMENT    OF    DISEASES,    ETC.,    OF    THE    ORAL    CAVITY.     133 

moved."  To  the  list  of  the  various  diseases  to  which  the  term  epulis 
has  been  applied,  Dr.  Pannly  adds  alveolar  abscess.* 

Josiah  F.  Flagg  writes,t  in  relation  to  tumors,  "  Preternatural 
enlargements  of  the  gums  are  not  uncommon.  They  proceed  from 
various  causes,  but  generally  from  diseased  teeth,  and  are  seldom  to 
be  cured  till  these  are  extracted.  Tumors  of  the  gums  are  either  of 
a  soft,  spongy  texture,  or  of  a  more  firm  and  fleshy  nature,  sometimes 
nearly  of  the  consistence  of  cartilage.  .  .  .  The  hard,  fleshy,  or 
cartilaginous  tumors  are  not  so  common  as  those  of  the  opposite 
nature ;  but  their  consequences  are  much  more  to  be  dreaded  if  they 
are  not  early  extirpated.  ...  In  all  these  cases  the  speedy  removal 
of  the  tumor  (by  the  use  of  caustics,  the  ligature,  or  the  knife)  is 
the  only  plan  of  treatment  on  which  we  can  reasonably  hope  for 
success.  In  some  instances,  however,  the  laceration  produced  by 
extracting  teeth  which  were  enveloped  in  such  tumors  has  proved 
an  effectual  remedy." 

Dr.  Koecker,  under  the  head  of  "  Effects  produced  by  dead  teeth 
and  stumps,"  J  etc.,  sums  up  an  enumeration  of  cases  of  tumors  and 
carcinomatous  growths  as  follows  :  "The  onlv  method  of  cure  for  all 
the  idiopathic  and  symptomatic  maladies,  whether  general  or  local, 
occasioned  by  dead  roots  and  teeth,  is  tlieir  immediate  extraction,  they 
being  always  the  principal  and  proximate  exciting  causes  of  the  dis- 
ease." 

Thomas  E.  Bond,  in  his  work,  "A  Practical  Treatise  on  Dental 
Medicine"  (Philadelphia,  1851),  treated  tliis  subject  more  fully  tlian 
any  previous  American  dental  writer.  Following  are  some  extracts, 
which  sufficiently  explain  themselves  : 

"Fungus  Hcematodes,  etc.  This  disease  is  almost  uniformly,  per- 
haps always,  a  constitutional  one,  and  therefore  beyond  tiie  reach  of 
any  local  means."  "Sarcomatous  or  fleshy  tumors,  ....  if  per- 
mitted to  pursue  their  natural  course,  sometimes  suppurate  and  then 
subside.  This  mode  of  cure,  however,  involves  so  much  inconve- 
nience, that  it  is  commonly  better  to  extirpate  them."  "The  term 
epulis  is  applied  to  different  excrescences  seated  upon  the  gum.  .  .  . 
They  are  generally  caused  by  carious  teeth,  whose  fangs  keep  up  a  con- 
tinual irritation  in  the  neighboring  parts,  and  are  sometimes  traceable 
to  neglected  jtarulk  or  gumboil  as  their  immediate  cause.  .  .  .  With- 
out removing  these  irritants,  of  course  no  permanent  cure  can  be 
expected.  ...  Of  whatever  kind  ....  tumors  may  be,  they  should 


*  Loc.  cit.,  p.  90.      t  T'le  Family  Dentist,  p.  58.      %  Dental  Surgery,  p.  '259. 


134  HISTORY   OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

be  carefully  watched.  So  long  as  they  cause  no  inconvenience  they 
mav  be  let  alone;  but  if,  by  reason  of  growth  or  any  other  cause, 
they  begin  to  inilanic  tiie  surrounding  parts,  or  to  become  painful 
during  the  movements  of  the  jaw,  or  contact  with  air  or  food,  they 
should  be  extirpated.  If  ])endul()us  and  accessible,  a  ligature  or  the 
knife  may  be  used ;  but  if  broadly  based  and  fully  incorporated  with 
the  gum,  and  but  small  in  size,  caustic  should  be  used."  Of  what 
has  been  called  "dropsy  of  the  antrum,"  he  says,  "The  term  dropsy 
is  entirely  misapplied  to  this  affection,  and  should  be  discarded.  .  .  . 
The  atfection  we  are  considering  is  a  distension  of  the  antral  cavity 
by  retained  mucus.  .  .  .  The  indication,  of  course,  is  to  make  an 
artificial  o])cning  and  permit  the  escape  of  the  contained  matter,  and 
then  to  make  such  applications  to  the  lining  membrane  of  the  antrum 
as  Avill  restore  the  natural  secretion  of  the  part."  '"'  With  regard  to 
the  treatment  of  antral  polypi,  it  resolves  itself  simply  into  making 
an  o[)ening  into  the  sinus  and  removing  the  tumor."  "  That  the 
larvae  of  insects  find  their  way  into  the  maxillary  sinus  is  proved  by 
abundant  evidence.  .  .  .  Should  worms  be  found  in  the  cavity, 
thcv  niust  be  destroyed  by  the  injection  of  oil  or  other  liquids  likely 
to  effect  the  purpose." 

Dr.  Harris,  writing  of  tumors  of  the  gums,*  says  they  "seldom 
arise  spontaneously,  but  are,  in  most  instances,  the  result  of  local 
irritation,  occasioned  by  the  presence  of  tartar,  decayed  or  dead 
teeth,  pr  roots  of.  teeth  ;  but  the  character  which  they  assume  is  de- 
termined by  the  state  of  the  constitutional  health  or  by  the  habit  of 
body  of  the  individual,  llence  their  great  variety.  .  .  .  We  do  not 
conceive  it  necessary  to  the  production  of  tumors,  that  any  of  the 
causes  here  enumerated  should  exist  at  the  time  they  make  their  ap- 
pearance. The  gums  and  alveoli  having  been  once  affected,  are  ever 
afterward  more  susceptible  to  morbid  impressions.  It  is  therefore 
quite  j>rol)al)le  that  an  unhealthy  action  is  sometimes  continued  in 
them  long  after  the  cause  that  produced  it  ceases  to  exist;  and  that 
this  ....  determines  their  development."  "  When  the  base  of  a 
tumor  is  very  broad,  and  the  bone  beneath  carious,  ....  the  actual 
cautery  is,  without  doubt,  the  surest  remedy,  because  it  is  obvious 
that  until  tiie  diseased  bone  is  exfoliated  a  cure  can  never  be  effected. 
But  under  no  other  circumstances  is  the  use  of  it  advisable.  ...  In 
the  treatment  of  tumors  originating  from  the  gums,  or   alveolar 

*  rrinciplo.s  and  Praolicc  of  Dental  Surgerj',  rhilaJelphia  editioii  of  18')3,  p. 
452  et  seq.  , 


TREATMENT   OF   DISEASES,  ETC.,  OF  THE   Oil  A  I.   CAVITY.       135 

processes,  or  from  bath,  much  depends  on  their  character  and  the 
constitutional  symptoms  aecom[)anying-  them.  Some  nmy  be  entirely 
removed  ....  by  simply  extracting  a  decayed  tooth  or  root;  others 
will  require  extirpation,  and,  in  some  instances,  even  this  will  not 
avail." 

With  reference  to  diseases  of  the  antrum,  this  author  writes,  "This 
cavity  is  subject  to  some  of  the  most  formidable  and  daugerous  dis- 
eases the  medical  or  surgical  practitioner  is  ever  called  upon  to  treat." 
Others,  however,  "are  very  simple  and  easily  cured,"  but  may,  tiirough 
neglect,  assume  a  dangerous  character.  "  While,  on  the  one  hand, 
the  most  simple  affections  of  this  cavity  may,  by  neglect  or  improper 
treatment,  ultimately  become  incurable;  those  on  the  other,  which 
are  considered  the  most  malignant  and  dangerous  from  their  incep- 
tion, might,  we  have  no  doubt,  by  timely  and  judicious  treatment, 
be  effectually  and  radically  removed."  "The  morbid  affections  of 
the  maxillary  sinus  are,  for  tiie  most  part,  similar  to  those  of  the 
nasal  fossae.  There  is,  however,  a  form  of  disease  which  seems  to  be 
peculiar  to  this  cavity,  viz. :  mucous  engorgement."  After  enumer- 
ating various  other  diseases  of  the  antrum,  and  the  causes  generally 
ascribed  for  them,  he  continues  :  "  If  all  the  circumstances  connected 
with  the  history  of  the  diseases  under  consideration  could  be  ascer- 
tained, we  think  it  would  be  found  that  these  affections  are  more 
frequently  induced  by  a  morbid  condition  of  the  teeth,  gums,  and 
alveolar  processes,  than  by  any  other  cause." 

In  considering  the  curative  treatment  of  diseases  of  this  cavity. 
Dr.  Harris  examines  thoroughly  into  the  origin  of  the  methods  of 
entrance  thereto ;  and  determines  as  follows :  "  When  the  natural 
opening  is  closed,  ....  a  ])erforation  should  be  made  into  the  sinus, 
and  the  most  proper  place  for  effecting  this  ....  is  through  the  al- 
veolar cavity  of  the  second  molar.  It  may,  however,  be  penetrated 
from  that  of  either  of  the  other  molars  or  bicuspids." 

The  American  writers  on  this  subject  since  the  date  of  Harris's 
work  have  been  few,  and  are  sufficiently  well  known  to  make  any 
exposition  of  their  views  unnecessary. 

The  treatment  of  accidentid  and  other  oral  injuries  will  now  be 
shortly  reviewed. 

In  the  earlier  time  of  American  dentistry  such  cuses  were  always 
referred  to  the  general  surgeon,  the  dental  operator  not  undertaking 
them  ;  but  the  sphere  of  dentistry  widened  somewhat,  and  at  present 
simple  accidents,  as  luxations,  fractures,  etc.,  of  the  jaw  are  not  un- 
commonly treated  by  the  dentist.     Evidence  of  the  comparatively 


136  HISTORY    OF    AifERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

iiiodorii  character  of  such  additions  to  ordinary  dental  practice,  may 
be  found  in  the  fact  that  Dr.  Bond,  who  wrote  in  1851,  is  the  first 
American  writer  of  note  who  incorporated,  together  witli  strictly  den- 
tal lesions,  a  consideration  of  cases,  as  wounds  and  the  more  serious 
diseases,  which  had  before  been  considered  to  belong  to  general  sur- 
gery. It  is  true  that  this  date  does  not  express  the  first,  or  even  very 
early  attention  paid  to  the  subject  by  dentists.  A  few  among  them, 
having  received  proper  preliminary  education,  were  competent  to, 
and  did,  perform  many  very  severe  and  extensive  surgical  operations, 
long  before  it  was  even  considered  needful  that  the  general  practi-* 
tioner  should  understand  them.  Among  such,  the  name  of  S.  P. 
Hullihen  Avill  always  be  remembered,  as  a  surgeon  of  the  first  grade 
as  well  as  an  excellent  dental  operator.  But,  in  spite  of  these  in- 
stances, the  writing  of  Dr.  Bond  is  the  first  indication  of  an  extended 
sphere  for  general  dentistry.  , 

Although  the  simpler  operations  in  general  surgery  pertaining  to 
the  oral  cavity  and  adjacent  parts  are  now"  performed  by  many  dentists, 
it  cannot  be  said  that  more  complex  or  difficult  cases  are  yet  much  at- 
tempted in  our  specialty.  As  an  instance  of  what  has  been  and  may 
be  accomplished  by  the  properly  educated  dentist,  and  in  conclusion 
of  this  part  of  the  subject,  a  case  of  Dr.  Hullihen's  will  be  cited, 
which  was  perhaps  the  most  difficult  and  extended  on  which  any 
American  dental  surgeon  has  ever  operated.  In  the  words  of  Dr. 
Harris,  "  the  ingenuity,  skill  and  boldness  displayed  in  the  concep- 
tion and  performance  of  tliis  complicatal  o[)eration,  place  Dr.  Hulli- 
hen at  once  among  the  ablest  surgeons  of  the  day." 

The  injury  was  a  very  severe  burn,  "])rincipally  confined  to  the 
neck  and  lower  part  of  the  fiice,  and  its  cicatrix  produced  a  deformity 
of  the  most  dreadful  character.  Her  head  was  drawn  downwards 
and  forwards,  the  chin  was  confined  within  an  inch  of  the  sternum, 
the  under  lip  was  so  pulled  down  that  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
left  side  came  far  below  the  chin,  the  under  jaw  was  bowed  sliglitly 
downward,  and  elongated  particularly  in  its  upper  portion,  which 
made  it  pniject  about  one  inch  and  three-eighths  beyond  the  upper 
jaw.  In  front  there  was  scarcely  any  ai)pearance  of  either  chin  or 
neck.  She  was  unable  to  turn  her  head  to  either  side,  the  cheeks 
and  upper  lip  were  dragged  considerably  downward  ;  she  could  not 
close  her  eyelids;  she  coidd  not  close  her  jaws  but  for  an  instant,  and 
then  only  i)y  bowing  her  head  forward.  She  could  not  retain  her 
saliva  for  a  single  instant.;  and,  as  might  be  exi)ected,  her  articula- 
tion was  verv  indistinct." 


I 


TREATMENT  OF    DISEASES,  ETC.,  OF  THE   ORAL   CAVITY.      137 

This  formidable  case  liad  been  further  complicated  by  an  unsuc- 
ces.sfnl  attempt  on  the  ])art  of  other  surgeons  to  so  dissect  up  and 
move  upward  the  cicatrix  on  the  neck  as  to  allow  of  motion  to  the 
head  and  jaw.  The  manner  in  which  Dr.  Hullihen  proceeded  is 
shown  as  follows,  condensed  from  his  own  graphic  account,* 

"  After  a  careful  observation  of  the  case,  it  became  evident  that 
such  a  complicated  deformity  could  be  best  remedied  by  performing 
three  separate  operations :  one  upon  the  jaw,  another  upon  the  neck, 
and  a  third  upon  the  under  lip.  To  remove  the  projection  of  the 
under  jaw  seemed  to  require  the  first  attention.  .  .  .  This  length- 
ening of  the  jaw  had  taken  place  entirely  between  the  cuspidatus 
and  first  bicuspid  tooth  of  the  right  side,  and  between  the  first  and 
second  bicuspids  of  the  left.  By  the  elongation  the  teeth  just  de- 
scribed were  separated  on  both  sides  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch." 
The  reduction  of  this  protrusion  was  effected  by  sawing  out  the 
elongated  portions  in  a  V  shape,  the  point  downward,  and  then  cut- 
ting horizontally  through  the  front  part  of  the  jaw  to  the  point  of 
the  V,  thus  severing  the  whole  upper  three-fourths  of  the  jaw,  the 
piece  containing  six  teeth.  In  doing  this  the  bone  was  not  detached 
from  the  soft  parts,  which  thus  held  it  in  connection  with  the  re- 
mainder of  the  jaw.  The  corner  angles  of  the  severed  part  being 
removed  by  ni])pers,  the  bone  was  "set  back  so  that  the  edges  from 
which  the  V-shaped  sections  were  removed  came  together."  The 
piece  was  retained  in  position  by  a  silver  plate  struck  up  and  fitted 
over  tlie  teeth  and  gum.  "The  gum  healed  in  a  few  days,  and  the 
jaw  united  strongly." 

The  second  part  of  the  operation,  the  division  of  the  cicatrices 
which  held  the  head  in  a  fixed  position,  was  effected  by  cutting 
boldly  through  them,  "  making  a  wound  upwards  of  nine  inches  in 
length  and  nearly  five  in  width."  A  leather  pattern  of  this  wound 
was  laid  on  the  shoulder  and  arm  over  the  deltoid  muscle,  and  a  flap 
of  the  same  form  and  dimensions  was  marked  out  and  dissected  up 
"  as  thick  as  the  parts  below  would  admit,"  having  an  attachment  or 
neck  two  inches  wide.  "This  flap  was  now  brought  around  and 
secured  in  the  wound  on  the  neck,"  and  the  wound  in  the  shoulder 
was  partly  drawn  together  and  partly  covered  with  lint.  The  j)atient 
bore  this  tedious  and  painful  operation  with  great  fortitude;  the  flap 
united  by  the  first  intention ;  and  in  about  six  weeks  all  was  healed, 
and  the  head  and  jaw  free. 

*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  1st  Series,  vol.  ix.  p.  167. 


138  HISTORY   OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

Tlie  third  step,  the  removal  of  the  great  deformity  of  the  lower 
lip,  was  effected  by  first  euttini;  out  a  V-shaped  ])ortioii  of  sufficient 
extent  to  cnal)le  the  lij),  when  drawn  together,  to  assume  its  former 
proportions;  but  as  there  still  remained  a  depression  of  the  upper 
outline,  this  was  remedied  by  cutting  another  V  out  of  the  lip, — 
after  the  first  had  iiealed, — and  raising  it  to  a  level  with  the  re- 
mainder. In  conclusion  Dr.  Hullihen  remarks:  "The  original  de- 
formity being  now  removed,  the  young  lady,  though  still  bearing 
evidence  of  the  burn,  has  the  free  use  of  her  head,  eye-lids,  jaws, 
and  lips,  and  may  mingle  in  society  without  particular  note  or 
remark." 

The  treatment  of  palatine  defects  will  next,  and  finally,  claim 
attention.  This  subject  has  always  been  a  prominent  and  important 
one  in  dentistry,  and  the  appliances  and  methods  connected  with  it 
have  reached  a  very  high  degree  of  excellence.  It  may  be  divided 
for  convenience  of  illustration  into  two  sections, — surgical  and  me- 
chanical. The  principal  method  of  exhibiting  the  first  is  by  the 
operation  of  staphyloraphy, — an  operation  common  with  many 
American  surgeons,  but  which  is  not  sufficiently  often  attempted  by 
the  dental  practitioner  to  warrant  its  discussion  in  these  circumscribed 
limits. 

The  second  section  consists  mainly  in  the  application  of  apparatuses 
to  restore,  in  effect,  lost  parts,  or  to  counteract  natural  defects,  in  the 
oral  cavity.  These  apparatuses  are  known  by  various  names,  and 
are  of  still  more  varied  construction.  Following  the  order  of  authors 
already  noted,  a  brief  resume  of  them  will  be  given. 

Probably  on  account  of  the  rarity  of  the  operation,  as  well  as  from 
the  more  than  ordinary  skill  and  anatomical  knowledge  required  to 
insure  success  in  it,  the  operation  of  constructing  pieces  for  the  ob- 
viation  of  palatine  defects  has  received  comparatively  slight  notice 
at  the  hands  of  any  but  the  best  early  dental  authoi'S.  Parndy 
(L.  S.)*  mentions  these  appliances  in  a  cursory  manner,  and  at- 
tempts no  explanation  of  the  method  of  producing  thein.  Flaggf 
is  even  more  reticent,  for  he  does  not  mention  them.  Koecker;}; 
simply  mentions  the  fact,  in  regard  to  these  appliances,  that,  as 
"artificial  teeth,  obturators,  etc.  stand  in  a  much  nearer  relation 
mechanically  to  the  other  parts  of  the  mouth  ....  than  any  other 
artificial  part  to  the  defective  and  corresponding  natural  one^"  they 

*  A  Practical  Guide  to  the  Management  of  the  Teeth,  1819. 

f  The  Family  Dentist,  1822.  J  Principles  of  Dental  Surgery,  1826. 


I 


TREATMENT  OF    DISEASES,  ETC.,  OF  THE   ORAL    CAVITY.       139 

"exert  a  far  greater  morbid  influence  uj>on  the  system  in  general,  as 
well  as  upon  the  living  teeth, ....  than  any  other  artificial  parts  used 
in  surgery,  ....  even  when  inserted  under  the  best  surgical  princi- 
ples."    Spooner*  makes  only  slight  reference  to  palatine  deficiencies. 

Dr.  C.  A.  Harris  was  the  first  American  author  to  devote  especial 
and  detailed  attention  to  this  subject,  f  Following  are  some  extracts  : 
"  It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  an  artificial  palate  or  obturator 
should  be  executed  in  the  most  perfect  manner,  and  be  made  to  fit 
accurately  all  the  parts  Avith  which  it  is  to  be  in  contact,  so  that  it 
may  not  produce  the  slightest  irritation,  or  exert  undue  pressure  upon 
any  of  the  superjacent  or  surrounding  parts."  "When  the  opening  in 
the  palate  is  small,  and  has  no  connection  with  the  velum,  it  is  seldom 
necessary  to  raise  the  upper  surface  of  the  plate  by  attaching  a  drum 
or  air-chamber  to  it."  This  air-chamber  or  drum  was  a  comi)ara- 
tively  modern  method  of  obturating  extensive  cavities  in  the  palate. 
The  older  method,  which  is  mentioned  only  cursorily  and  as  histori- 
cal, by  Dr.  Plarris,  was  to  attach  a  sponge,  larger  than  the  orifice  in 
the  ]>alate,  to  the  upper  surface  of  the  ])late,  and  force  it  through  the 
opening,  where  it  was  swelled  by  the  absorption  of  moisture  and  se- 
cretions, and  not  only  filled  the  cavity,  but  held  the  plate  in  j)lace 
also.  Not  the  least  of  the  objections  to  this  method  was  the  offen- 
sive odor  of  the  sponge  when  filled  with  mucus  and  moisture.  But 
it  was  subject  to  a  graver  defect ;  for  its  action  on  the  edges  of  the 
opening  on  and  against  which  it  rested  and  pressed,  was  to  enlarge 
and  increase  the  already  existent  defect.  The  objection  of  its  offen- 
sive odor  was  obviated  by  the  substitution  for  it  of  a  metal  ap))cnd- 
age  to  serve  in  the  same  manner  and  for  the  same  purpose;  but 
this,  while  destroying  the  lesser  evil,  only  increased  the  greater.  It 
was  not  until  about  1820,  in  this  country,  that  the  supporting  of 
obturators  and  palate-plates  was  generally  effected  by  clasps  around 
the  natural  teeth,  and  somewhat  later  by  atmospheric  pressure. 

In  cases  of  complication  of  palatal  openings  with  loss,  wholly  or 
partially,  of  the  velum,  a  much  more  complicated  apparatus  is  re- 
quired than  the  simple  obturator.  Foreign  denrists  were  quicker  in 
arriving:  at  desirable  results  in  this  direction  than  American.  Dr. 
Harris  describes  a  contrivance  of  Delabarre's  in  a  case  of  this  kind. 
It  "consisted  of  a  metallic  ])late  bent  in  the  form  of  a  horse-shoe, 
and  occupied  the  place  of  the  posterior  part  of  the  naso-palatine 
floor ;  the  nasal  portion  was  grooved  for  the  reception  of  the  vomer." 


^  Guide  to  Sound  Teeth,  1836.      f  Principles  and  Practice  of  Dental  Surgery. 


140  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAN   DENTISTRY. 

To  the  posterior  portion  was  affixed  "a  piece  of  caoutchouc  resem- 
I)ling  in  sliape  the  form  of  the  velum  and  uvula."  The  whole  was 
secured  in  its  place  by  clasps  around  the  first  molars. 

The  principle  thus  enunciated  by  Delabarre  is  tiiat  on  which  the 
only  sxonorally  succeasful  subsequent  "artificial  palates"  have  been 
constructed. 

Dr.  S.  P.  Hullihen  invented  a  form  of  apparatus  for  use  where 
the  velum  had  been  lost  by  disease,  with  a  view  to  restoring  the  air- 
passages  to  their  normal  condition.  It  consisted  of  a  gold  plate 
struck  up  to  fit  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  as  usual,  and  having  on  its 
under  or  lingual  surface  two  small  staples,  in  line  with  the  axis  of 
the  arch,  which  held,  and  through  which  could  be  slid,  backward  or 
forward,  a  "slider"  of  gold  plate,  about  one  and  one-half  inches  in 
length,  and  one-eighth  in  width,  and  having  on  its  anterior  end  a 
button,  which  prevented  its  being  drawn  or  pushed  from  the  staples,, 
and  allowed  the  placing  at  will  in  the  necessary  position  of  the  ap- 
paratus which  was  attached  to  its  posterior  end.  This  consisted  of  a 
fine  spiral  spring  in  line  with,  and  a  continuation  of,  the  "  slider," 
and  had  fastened  to  it  on  each  side  the  double  semi-globular  metal 
valve,  designed  to  admit  of  the  ingress  and  egress  of  the  desired  volume 
of  air.  By  the  slider  the  wearer  adjusted  the  valve  to  its  proper 
position,  where  it  vibrated  in  inhalation  or  exhalation  upon  the  spiral 
spring. 

By  far  the  greatest  improvement  in  this  class  of  apparatuses  which 
had  been  produced  in  this  or  in  any  country,  was  the  artificial  palate 
of  Dr.  Charles  AY.  Stearns,  invented  about  1843-4.  Dr.  Stearns, 
then  a  resident  of  Springfield,  Mass.,  and  a  graduate  of  medicine, 
was  himself  afflicted  with  a  congenital  cleft  palate.  The  failure  in 
his  case  of  two  or  three  surgical  operations,  induced  him  to  endeavor 
to  remedy  the  defect  himself  mechanically. 

At  that  time  and  place,  Mr.  Goodyear  was  conducting  his  experi- 
ments with  rubber,  and  Dr.  Stearns,  being  acquainted  with  Good- 
year and  his  material,  used  the  latter  for  his  palatine  substitute.  He 
was  almost  entirely  Avithout  knowledge  of  dentistry.  He  operated 
upon  himself,  took  his  own  impressions  {with  bits  of  wax  on  the  end 
of  a  stick),  and  vulcanized  the  rubber  portions  of  his  apj)liance  in 
moulds  cut  or  carved  from  trood  blocks,  according  to  the  fragmentary 
impressions  mentioned,  with  his  own  hand.  Yet,  despite  the  mani- 
fest and  extraordinary  difficulties  encountered  through  these  crude, 
laborious,  and  extremely  unreliable  methods,. he  was  so  eminently 
successful  that,  when  using  his  appliance,  in  the  language  of  an  ac- 


I 


TREATMENT  OF    DISEASES,  ETC.,  OF   THE    ORAL    CAVITY.       141 

quaintance,*  "  his  voice,  articulation,  and  enunciation  were  so  clear 
and  distinct  that  no  one,  without  an  anatomical  examination,  would 
have  suspected  the  deformity." 

It  is  true  that,  in  common  with  most  original  inventors.  Dr.  Stearns 
arrived  at  this  result  through  methods  and  mechanism  the  most  com- 
plicated and  difficult  of  manufacture.  It  is  this  which  has  stood  in 
the  M'ay  of  general  adoption  of  his  appliance ;  but  it  does  not  de- 
tract from  his  merit  as  an  original  inventor,  or  lessen  the  truth  of  the 
statement  that,  through  his  labors,  he  rendered  possible  the  produc- 
tion of  the  simpler  and  even  more  effectual  apparatus  next  to  be 
noticed, — that  of  Dr.  X.  W.  Kingsley,  of  New  York. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  principle  in  artificial  vela  for  a  con- 
genital cleft  enunciated  by  Dr.  Stearns  was  that  the  portion  of  the 
appliance  designed  to  fill  the  fissure  must  be  flexibly  valve-like,  and 
completely  under  the  control  of  the  muscles  surrounding  it,  in  order 
to  the  proper  and  easy  production  of  certain  sounds.  He  produced 
these  results  through  the  character  of  the  material  used  (vulcanized 
soft  rubber),  and  the  making  it  embrace  the  levator  muscles,  which 
rendered  its  perfect  control  certain. 

Owing  to  a  certain  carelessness  in  the  editorship  of  the  periodicals 
of  his  day,  there  has  been  created  an  impression  that  Dr.  Stearns 
was  of  England.  This  is  possibly  owing  to  the  fact  that  he 
published  his  first  account  of  his  appliance  in  the  London  Lancet, 
while  on  a  visit  to  that  country.  As  has  been  shown,  however,  his 
invention  belongs  to  this  country  only. 

Dr.  X.  W.  Kingsley  began  his  experiments  in  palatal  ajiparatuses 
about  the  year  1860.  He  worked  in  conjunction  with  Dr.  Stearns 
in  his  first  case,  that  gentleman  being  at  the  time  in  mercantile  busi- 
ness in  New  York.  Afterward  Dr.  Kingsley  made  many  improve- 
ments in  Stearns's  appliance,  which  were  designed  principally  to 
obviate  complication  and  difficulties  of  manufacture.  Dr.  Kingsley 
exhibited  the  improv^ed  instrument  before  the  American  Dental 
Convention  in  1863.  In  1864,  he  finally  devised  his  present  arti- 
ficial palate  and  velum,  a  production  at  once  original  with  himself, 
and  as  eminently  simple  as  others  had  been  complicated. 

In  the  absence  of  cuts,  it  is  impossible  to  give  a  correct  idea  of  this 
appliance;  but  it  may  be  truly  said  that,  up  to  this  time,  Dr.  Kings- 
ley's  form  of  instrument,  in  both  practical  value  and  ease  of  manu- 
facture, stands  at  the  head  of  the  list  of  similar  appliances. 

*  Dr.  N.  W.  Kingsley. 


DENTAL    ASSOCIATIONS. 


ORIGINAL   AND  REPRESENTATIVE   BODIES. 

Less  than  forty  years  ago  there  was  not  a  dental  society  or  as- 
sociation in  this  country.     To-day  they  may  be  enumerated  by  scores. 

Tiiese  facts  prove  the  increase  of  the  profe-sion  in  numbers  beyond 
di>pute.  To  what  extent  they  indicate  its  growth  in  public  import- 
ance and  scientific  attainments  is  a  problem  which  may  be  solved  by 
a  cursory  review  of  the  existence  and  acts  of  the  principal  associa- 
tions, historically  considered,  which  have  from  time  to  time  appeared 
in  the  dental  world.  Of  all  those  now,  or  which  have  been,  in  ex- 
istence in  this  country,  it  will  be  impossible  in  our  circumscribed 
limits  to  treat  fully.  This  sub-section,  therefore,  shall  be  confined 
to  a  consideration  of  two  classes  of  associations:  those  which  came 
first,  and  may  be  said  to  be  the  foundation  on  which  our  present 
system  rests,  and  those  of  that  system  which  are  its  result. 

In  the  first  class  are  included  the  American  Society  of  Dental 
Surgeons,  the  Virginia  Society  of  Dental  Surgeons,  the  Mississippi 
Valley  Association  of  Dental  Surgeons,  the  Pennsylvania  Associa- 
tion (now  Society)  of  Dontal  Surgeons,  and  the  (first)  New  York 
State  Society  of  Dentiil  Surgeons.  To  the  second  class  belong  the 
American  Djutal  Convention  and  the  American  Dental  Association. 

In  the  primary  stages  of  American  dentistry  the  profession  was 
peculiar,  but  not  singular,  in  the  fact  of  its  strong  conservatism. 
This  state  is  common  to  all  bodies  ntmierically  small  and  scientifi- 
cally deficient  (we  are  speaking  of  the  average  ]>rofession).  Under 
such  conditions  it  is  almost  invariably  the  case  that  processes  and 
agencies  are  jealously  guarded  in  secrecy,  and  the  approach  of  in- 
quiry and  investigation  is  viewed  with  a  watchful  and  forbidding 
eye.  Such  knowledge  as  is  possessed  is  regarded  as  the  property  and 
for  the  benefit  of  individuals  alone. 

But  dentistry  w:ls  a  quick-growing  profession,  and  possessed 
inherent  sources  of  power  of  which  at  first  it  was  unconscious,  but 
142 


DENTAL   ASSOCIATIONS.  143 

which  at  length  became  apparent.  For  a  long  time  the  really  scien- 
tific of  the  brotlicrhood  might  almost  be  numbered  on  the  fingers; 
but  this  could  not  and  did  not  continue.  The  standard  of  excellency, 
from  the  labors  of  such  men  as  Hudson,  Hayden,  Parkhurst,  Gar- 
dette,  Randall,  and  others,  became  gradually  higher,  and  the  })rofes- 
sion  assumed  a  more  important  and  res])onsible  position. 

In  this  latter  fact,  however,  lay  hid  the  seeds  of  danger,  for  in- 
creasing importance  brought  to  dentistry  a  consequent  accession  of 
money  value,  and  when,  during  the  financial  troubles  of  1835-6, 
many  in  other  occupations  were  thrown  out  of  their  customary  em- 
ployments, there  seemed  no  door  of  refuge  so  widely  opened  to  them 
as  that  into  the  practice  of  dentistry,  a  calling,  they  argued,  which 
required  little  or  no  preparation  for  its  successful  pursuit,  and  in 
which  the  emoluments  were  sufficiently  large  and  certain  to  insure 
pecuniary  success.  Accordingly  dentistry  became  overrun  with 
those  who  did  not  possess  the  smallest  share  of  qualifications  for 
that  profession,  and  who  could  only  very  seriously  injure  it  and  its 
abler  practitioners.  "It  is  a  notorious  fact  that  the  number  of 
dentists  in  the  United  States  was  nearly  doubled  in  the  two  years 
following  1836."  * 

Also,  but  few  years  before  (1833-1835),  it  was  shown  through  the 
Crawcours  and  Mai  Ian  on  how  precarious  a  position  the  dentistry  of 
the  time  was  fixed,  and  how  unformed  was  the  public  mind  in  its 
regard.  Without  scientific  ability,  prestige,  or  reputation,  these 
charlatans  had  quietly  and  with  certainty  usurped  such  a  place  in  the 
public  view  of  the  profession  as  they  were  by  no  means  in  justice 
entitled  to,  and  had,  through  the  simple  agency  of  a  flourish  of 
trumpets,  so  to  speak,  endangered  the  very  existence  of  that  profes- 
sion in  a  scientific  view. 

As  long  before  as  1817,  Dr.  Hayden  had  b'roached  the  idea  of  a 
national  convention  of  dentists  ;t  but  the  "  pear  was  not  ripe,"  for 
dentistry  then  appeared  secure.  From  time  to  time  he  renewed  his 
attempts  only  to  fail  again. 

But  when  he  made  a  final  effort  in  1838,t  he  was  more  successful. 
In  the  crusade  against  the  Crawcours  the  profession  had  descried 
some  of  the  advantages  resulting  from  associated  effort,  and,  again 
threatened,  it  seized  the  opportunity  offered  by  Dr.  Hayden's  idea. 

About  the  year  1837  was  instituted  in  New  York  city  an  associ- 


*  Amcriciin  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  1st  Series,  vol.  vii.  j).  207. 
t  Ili.J.,  vol.  i.  p.  240.  I  lt)icl. 


144  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

ation  of  denti?;ts  under  the  title  of  "  Tlie  New  York  Society  of  Dental 
Surgeons."  This  body  liad  only  a  limited  existence,  and  there  are 
no  records  of  its  doings,  objects,  or  date  of  beginning  or  ending.  It, 
however,  attained  to  sufficient  importance  to  control  at  least  one 
auxiliary  society,  the  Dental  Association  of  Western  Neio  York,  of 
which  latter  body  there  exists  no  record  except  a  copy  of  resolutions 
by  it  approbative  of  the  establishment  of  the  American  Journal  of 
Dental  Science,  and  published  in  the  first  volume  of  that  periodical, 
page  17,  in  1839. 

It  is  probable  that  these  institutions  were  not  regularly  organized, 
and  were  simply  conventions  or  meetings  Mithout  corporate  character. 
]5ut  the  extremely  limited  amount  of  information  about  them  to  be 
now  obtained  will  not  warrant  a  formal  statement  to  this  effect. 

On  the  18th  of  August,  1840,  there  assembled  at  the  American 
Hotel  in  New  York,  a  body  composed  of  the  best  dentists  then  in 
the  profession.  After  preliminary  resolutions,  they  adjourned  to 
the  residence  of  S.  and  A.  W.  Brown,  in  Park  Place,  and  on  the 
same  day  adopted  a  constitution  and  by-laws,  and  elected  officers, 
thus  completing  the  organization  of  the 

AMERICAN    SOCIETY    OF    DENTAL    SURGEONS.* 

The  resolution  by  Dr.  C.  A.  Harris,  directing  the  drafting  of  the 
constitution,  was  short  but  significant.  "  Mesolved,  That  it  is  the 
opinion  of  this  convention  that  the  science  of  dental  surgery  would 
be  advanced,  and  the  interests  of  all  well-informed  practitioners  and 
the  community  at  large  be  promoted  by  the  formation  of  a  national 
society  of  dentists ;  therefore,  resolced,  furthermore,  That  ....  a 
committee  be  appointed,"  etc. 

The  constitution,  as  adopted,  was  as  follows : 

Article  I.     Of  the  Objects  of  the  Society. 

The  objects  of  this  Society  are  to  promote  union  and  harmony 
among  all  respectable  and  well-informed  Dental  Surgeons;  to  ad- 
vance tiie  science  by  free  communication  and  interchange  of  senti- 
ments, either  written  or  verbal,  between  members  of  the  Society,  both 
in  this  and  other  countries;  in  fine,  to  give  character  and  respect- 
aljility  to  the  profession,  by  estal)lishing  a  line  of  distinction  between 
the  truly  meritorious  and  skillful,  and  such-  as  riot  in  the  ill-gotten 
fruit  of  unblushing  impudence  and  empiricism. 

*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  1st  Series,  vol.  i.  p.  157.  f  Ibid. 


DENTAL    ASSOCIATIOXS.  145 

Article  II.     Of  the  Name  of  the  Society. 

The  Society  shall  be  known  and  designated  by  the  name  and  title 
of  "  The  American  Society  of  Dental  Surgeons." 

Article  III.     Of  the  Officers  of  the  Society. 

See.  1.  The  officers  of  the  Society  shall  consist  of  a  President  and 
three  Vice-Presidents,  a  Recording  and  a  Corresponding  Secretary,  a 
Treasurer,  a  Librarian,  an  Executive,  an  Examining,  and  a  Publish- 
insr  Committee. 

Sec.  2.  The  election  of  the  above-named  officers  shall  be  by  ballot 
at  a  regular  annual  meeting  of  the  Society,  a  majority  of  votes  deter- 
mining the  election. 

Article  IV.     Of  Members  of  the  Society. 

There  shall  be  two  classes  of  members,  known  and  recognized  as 
Acting  Members  or  Fellows,  and  Honorary  Members,  the  former 
consisting  of  those  who  subscribe  this  constitution,  either  personally 
or  by  proxy,  and  pay  into  the  treasury  the  annual  dues  required  by 
this  constitution,  and  the  latter  embracing  such  members  as  are 
merely  elected  to  membership. 

Article  V.     Of  the  Requisitions  of  Membership. 

Sec.  1.  Each  and  every  Acting  INIember  of  this  Society  shall  either 
have  been  such  by  virtue  of  his  attendance  in  person,  by  proxy,  or 
by  letter  at  the  time  of  its  formation,  or  as  shall  be  afterwards 
elected,  as  prescribed  by  this  constitution,  and  subscribe  to  the  same. 

Sec.  2.  Each  and  every  Acting  Member  shall  pay  into  the  treasury 
of  the  Society  the  annual  sum  of  five  dollars,  for  the  benefit  of  its 
funds. 

Sec.  3.  Each  and  every  Acting  ^lember  shall  be  required  to  attend 
the  Society  at  least  once  in  three  years,  unless  excused  by  the  Society. 

Article  VI.      Of  the  Election  of  Members. 

All  members  of  the  Society,  excepting  those  who  were  Acting 
Members  at  the  time  of  forming  the  same  and  establishing  this  con- 
stitution, shall  be  elected  as  follows,  viz. :  The  candidate  for  mem- 
bership shall  be  proposed  at  a  regular  meeting  by  the  Executive 
Committee,  whereui)on  two  tellers  shall  be  appointed  by  the  presid- 
ing officer,  who  shall  collect  the  ballots,  consisting  of  slips  of  paper 
having  plainly  written  on  them  either  yea  or  nay.     In  case  two- 

11 


I 


i 


146  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

tliirds  of  the  members  present  shall  vote  in  the  affirmative  the  can- 
didate shall  be  declared  to  have  been  duly  elected  a  member  of  this 
Society. 

Article  YII.     Of  the  Expulsion  of  3Iembers. 

Any  member  of  this  Society  may  be  expelled  for  immoral  conduct, 
mal[)ractice  in  business,  or  other  sufficient  cause,  on  motion  of  one 
member,  seconded  by  another  at  any  regular  meeting  of  the  Society, 
in  which  case  a  majority  of  three-fourths  of  the  members  presenj; 
shall  be  required. 

Article  YIII.     Of  the  Meetings  of  the  Society. 

The  meetings  of  the  Society  shall  be  held  annually  by  adjournment, 
from  time  to  time,  and  from  place  to  place,  agreeably  to  the  will  of 
the  Society. 

Article  IX.      Of  the  Resources  of  the  Society. 

Sec.  1.  The  Society  may  receive  contril)utions  of  money,  books,  or 
other  property,  which  may  be  either  used  or  sold  in  aid  of  its  pur- 
poses. 

Sec.  2.  Each  and  every  candidate  examined  and  admitted  to  mem- 
bership, shall  pay  to  the  treasurer  a  fee  of  twenty-five  dollars  before 
receiving  his  diploma. 

Sec.  3.  Each  and  every  person  who  shall  become  an  active  mem- 
ber of  the  Society  by  election,  shall  pay  ten  dollars  for  the  benefit  of 
its  funds,  which  shall  entitle  him  to  a  diploma. 

Article  X.     Of  the  Disposition  of  the  Funds  of  the  Society.  m 

The  funds  of  the  Society  may  be  appropriated  to  the  purchase  of 
lands,  tenementSj'chemical  or  philosophical  apparatus,  the  publishing 
of  books,  tracts,  and  other  papers  and  documents,  and  to  such  chari- 
table objects  as  shall  hereinafter  be  enumerated. 

Article  XL     Of  the  Distribution  of  the  Effects  of  this  Society  in  the 
event  of  its  final  dissolution. 

Sec.  1.  In  case  a  dissolution  of  the  Societv  shall  at  anv  time  be       \ 
proposed,  a  meeting  shall   be  called  specially  for  that  purpose,  and 
the  consent  of  three-fourths  of  its   members  shall    be   required    to 
effect  it. 

Sec.  2.  Should  the  Society  thus  be  dissolved  by  its  own  act,  the 
property  belonging  to  it  shall  be  sold  by  order  of  the  President,  or 


DENTAL   ASSOCIATIONS.  147 

by  any  three  Fellows  Avho  shall  ol)taiii  authority  from  a  majoritv  of 
the  living  and  subscribing  members,  and  the  assets  of  sale  shall  be 
equally  divided  among  the  subscribing  members. 

Article  XII.      Of  the  Indispensable  Qualifications  of  Candidates  icho 
have  never  yet  entered  upon  p/rofessional  practice. 

Sec.  1.  The  candidate  shall  be  at  least  twentv-one  vears  of  ajxe ; 
shall  have  a  good  English  education  ;  shall  produce  evidence  of  unex- 
ceptionable moral  character ;  and  shall  have  studied  and  practiced 
for  the  full  term  of  two  years  with  some  practical  dentist  known  as 
such  to  this  Society. 

Sec.  2.  Xo  candidate  for  membership  who  has  the  diploma  of  any 
dental  college,  regularly  chartered  in  any  of  the  United  States,  shall 
be  subjected  to  re-examination  by  the  Examining  Committee  of  this 
Society,  but  shall  be  entitled  to  a  diploma  by  complying  with  the  By- 
Laws. 

Article  XIII.      Of  the  Quorum  required  to  transact  business,  and  of 
the  contingency  of  there  being  no  quorum  present  at  any  meeting. 

Sec.  1.  Seven  acting  members,  or  Fellows,  of  the  Society,  besides 
the  President  or  chairman,  shall  be  necessary  for  the  transaction  of 
business  at  the  opening  of  any  annual  meeting. 

Sec.  2.  In  the  event  that  a  quorum  cannot  be  obtained  at  any 
regular  meeting  of  the  Society,  the  time  of  meeting  on  the  following 
year  shall  be  the  second  Tuesday  of  August,  at  the  place  the  same  as 
on  the  preceding  year. 

Article  XIV.     Of  the  Charitable  Objects  of  the  Society. 

Sec.  1.  Any  surplus  moneys  in  the  treasury  may  be  appropriated, 
at  any  regular  meeting  of  the  Society,  for  the  aid  and  relief  of  the 
widows  and  orphans  of  deceased  members,  or  for  the  benefit  of  living 
members  reduced  to  want,  by  sickness  or  other  calamity,  it  being 
provided  that  no  such  appropriation  shall  be  made  without  the  con- 
sent of  two-thirds  of  the  members  present. 

Sec.  2.  Other  charitable  or  patriotic  api)ropriations  may  be  made 
at  any  regular  meeting  of  the  Society,  by  a  majority  of  three-fourths 
of  the  members  present. 

Sec.  3.  The  President  may  at  any  time  give  pecuniary  assistance 
to  any  member,  or  to  the  surviving  family  of  any  deceased  member, 
out  of  any  moneys  in  the  treasury,  deposited  there  by  benevolent 
individuals. 


148  HISTORY   OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

Article  XV.     Of  Alterations  and  Amendments  of  this  Constitution. 

Any  alteration,  anienflmont,  or  revision  of  this  constitution  may 
be  made  at  any  regular  meeting  of  the  Society,  by  the  joint  assent  of 
three-fourths  of  the  Fellows  present  at  such  meeting. 

The  officers  elected  under  the  above  constitution  were,  Horace 
H.  Playden,  M.D.,  President;  Josiah  F.  Flagg,  M.D.,  Eleazer 
Family,  M.D.,  and  E.  B.  Gardette,*  Vice-Presidents;  Solyman 
Brown,  A.M.,  Recording  Secretary;  Chapin  A.  Harris,  M.D.,  Cor- 
responding Secretary ;  Elisha  Baker,  Treasurer;  J.  H.Foster,  M.D., 
Librarian;  Jahial  Family,  Levi  S.  Family,  Enoch  Noyes,  Ixnvis 
Roper,  and  Nathan  C.  Keep,  Executive  Committee;  J.  Smith  Dodge, 
Daniel  Harwood,  David  Harrington,  Leonard  ^IcCall,  and  F.  Hous- 
ton, Examining  Committee;  Samuel  W.  Family,  S.  Spooner,  John 
Loveoy,  Edward  Hudson,  and  James  S.  Gunnell,  Publishing  Corn- 
inittcc.-\    ■ 

Thus  was  formed  the  ({)rob;ibly)  first  regularly  organized  dental 
association  in  this  country.  The  initiation,  progress,  and  consumma- 
tion of  this  enterprise  were  due,  so  far  as  regards  individual  effort, 
more  to  Horace  H.  Hayden  than  to  all  others.  Solyman  Brown,  the 
first  recording  secretary,  says  of  hini,|  "  When  he  shall  have  been 
forgotten  as  a-dental  practitioner  and  ])iiysiologist,  he  will  be  remem- 
bered by  his  professional  successors  as  the  father  of  the  ^American 
Society  of  Dental  Surgeons.'  " 

At  the  next  meeting,  in  1841,  the  Society  having  resolved  to  estab- 
lish a  periodical,  the  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  by  offer 
of  its  editors,  passed  into  the  possession  of  the  Society,  and  continued 
so  until  1850,  when  it  was  transferred  to  Dr.  C.  A.  Harris. 

AVhcn  the  formation  of  this  Society  was  first  broached,  the  idea  was 
scouted  as  impracticable  by  niany.§  The  idea  of  "  community  of 
knowledge"  was  the  principal  objection.  But  the  Society,  once  formed, 
easily  lived  down  opposition,  and  continued  to  exist  in  the  face  of  such 
antagonism,  and  in  spite  of  many  serious  defects  in  its  own  nature. 
One  of  these,  noted  and  objected  to  at  the  time  of  its  formation, || 
.  and  which  ultimately  accelerated  its  downfall,  was  the  laxity  of  its 
rules  in  regard  to  its  qualifications  for  and  admittance  to  member- 
ship.    It  was  held  that  to  insure  the  permanency  and  success  of  a 

*  Dr.  Gtirdelte  was  not  present  when  elected,  and  subsequently  declined  the 
position. 

f  American  .Journal  of  Dental  Science,  1st  Series,  vol.  i.  p.  1C7. 

X  Ibid  ,  p.  179.  l  Ibid.,  vol.  ii.  p.  256.  ||  Ibid.,  vol.  ix.  p.  283. 


DENTAL   ASSOCIATIONS.  149 

society,  great  care  should  be  taken  to  admit  into  it  only  such  members 
as  could  be  relied  upon  to  carry  out  its  objects  to  the  full ;  that  "  the 
more  fixed  and  peremptory  in  its  restrictions — the  more  exacting  in  its 
requisitions  as  to  the  attainments  and  qualifications  of  its  members" 
— the  greater  would  be  its  influence,  and  the  higher  could  its  aims 
and  requirements  bo  kept  without  danger  to  its  existence.  Of  this 
freedom  of  entrance  to  the  brotherhood.  Dr.  J.  H.  Foster  said,* 
"  This  was  the  first  great  error,  and  the  most  fatal ;  it  was  the  cause 
of  all  that  strife,  bickering,  and  contention  which  marked  its  career." 
Even  Dr.  Hayden,  the  prime  mover  and  soul  of  the  enterprise,  is 
reported  to  have  said,f  "that  the  Society  was  founded  upon  princi- 
ples which  he  did  not  approve,  and  that  there  had  not  been  sufficient 
circumspection"  in  its  organization. 

The  first  meeting  of  the  Society  was  taken  up  wholly  by  technical 
business.  But  at  the  next  meeting,  in  1841,  it  was  free  to  attend  to 
other  matters ;  and  here  appeared  the  old  enemy  in  the  shape  of 
"amalgam,"  introduced  by  the  following  question  for  discussion,  pro- 
pounded in  a  letter  from  Dr.  J.  H.  Foster :|  "Are  there  cases  in 
which  it  is  essentially  advisable  and  important  that  teeth  should  be 
filled,  in  which  gold  foil  cannot  be  used  and  other  articles  be  substi- 
tuted, so  as  to  preserve  the  teeth  a  sufficient  time  to  compensate  for 
the  operation  ?" 

On  this  firebrand  a  committee  was  appointed  to  take  action,  and 
returned  a  report  "  That  the  use  of  lithodeon,  mineral  paste,  and  all 
other  substances  of  wkicli  mercury  is  an  ingredient,  is  injurious  to  the 
teeth,  and  that  there  is  no  tooth  in  which  caries  in  it  can  be  arrested 
and  the  oi'gan  rendered  serviceable  by  being  filled  in  which  gold 
cannot  be  employed."  §     This  report  was  unanimously  adopted. 

But,  as  has  been  seen,||  the  enemy  was  so  far  from  being  destroyed 
by  this  that  it  even  increased  in  vigor.  Consequently,  in  184.j,  a 
resolution  was  adopted  declaring  the  use  of  amalgam  to  be  malprac- 
tice; and  again,  in  1844,  that  the  recording  secretary  give  notice  to 
each  member  charged  by  another  with  using  "  mineral  ])aste,"  that 
such  use  had  been  declared  by  the  Society  to  be  malpractice,  and  that 
any  thereafter  persisting  in  its  use  would  have  their  cases  acted  on 
by  the  Society.^  Finally,  at  the  meeting  of  1845,  the  Society  ])assed 
those  resolutions,  and   drew  up   that  document,  which   have  since 

*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Scienco,  1st  Series,  vol.  ix.  p.  284. 
flbid.  '       t  Ibid.,  p.  285. 

I  See  "  Plastic  Fillings,"  and  "  Amalgam  "War."  ||  Ibid. 

^  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  vol.  vi.  p.  174. 


150  HISTORV   OF    AMERICAN   DENTISTRY. 

become  part  and  parcel  of  history  as  the  "amalgam  j)rotest  and 
pledge."* 

The  consequence  of  these  measures,  since  jiroved  to  have  been 
much  more  vigorous  than  politic,  was  an  immediate  reduction  in  the 
membership  of  the  Society,  partly  through  expulsion,  but  princii)ally 
from  voluntary  withdrawal,  and  a.  great  decline  in  its  influence; 
which,  in  fact,  had  never  been  so  marked  as  it  was  primarily  hoped 
it  would  become.  The  attention  of  the  Society  to  its  own  interne- 
cine warfare  had  prevented  the  agitation  of  subjects  of  much  more 
real  moment  to  the  })rofession.  Says  Foster,!  "  It  was  this  vexed 
and  agitated  question  (amalgam),  and  this  only,  that  was  discussed, 
so  that  the  true  objects  of  the  Society  were  made  null  and  void." 

In  1850  it  became  so  apparent  that  the  Society  had  been  pursuing 
a  wrong  course,  that  an  effort  Avas  made  to  reinstate  it  in  the  good 
will  of  the  general  ]>rofession  by  rescinding  the  obnoxious  ""pledge" 
resolutions;  but  so  much  of  the  old  leaven  still  clung  to  it,  that  the 
manner  in  which  this  was  done  served  only  to  debase  instead  of  ele- 
vate its  position.  To  the  intense  disappointment  of  its  friends  and 
well-wishers,  it  refused  the  noble  ])art  of  open  and  candid  acknowl- 
edgment of  faultiness,  and  substituted  an  evasive  and  equivocal 
course  ;|  for  it  took  the  double  (and  doubly  false)  ground  that  the 
rescinded  resolutions  had  accomplished  their  object,  and  that  the  So- 
ciety was  no  longer  to  be  considered  responsible,  to  the  community 
or  the  profession,  in  the  matter.  So  ignoble  was  this  course  held, 
even  by  some  of  the  members,  that  resignations  of  fellowship  were 
its  immediate  consequence. 

From  this  time  forth,  the  Society  was  no  longer  even  what  it  had 
been.  Its  authority  and  influence  were  lessened  by  its  own  act,  and 
other  societies  and  associations,  in  more  popular  rej)ute  and  with 
equally  high  and  more  liberal  pretensions,  were  springing  up  around 
it,  and  secured  to  themselves  the  most  eligible  members.  At  length, 
at  the  meeting  of  May  9th,  1855,  a  preliminary  resolution  was 
adopted  directing  the  President  (Dr.  Townsend)  to  call  a  meeting  to 
consider  the  question  of  the  dissolution  of  the  Society.  This  meeting 
convened  in  Philadelphia,  August  1st,  1855,  when  the  subject  of  dis- 
solution was  referred  to  a  committee,  which  reported  adversely,  but 

*  They  are  more  fully  reported  in  "  Plastic  Fillings,"  and  "  Amalgam  War," 
which  soe. 

f  American  Journal  of  Uental  Scioncft,  1st  Series,  vol.  ix.  p.  286. 

:j:  Si'e  report  of  the  committee  on  rescinding  the  amalgam  pledge,  American 
Journal  of  Dental  Science,  2d  Series,  vol.  i.  p.  66. 


DENTAL  ASSOCIATIONS.  151 

which  was  continued,  with  power  of  further  action,  and  tlie  Society 
adjourned  as  usual,  to  meet  in  New  Yorlc  on  the  first  Tuesday  in 
August,  185G.  On  that  day,  after  several  vain  attempts  to  secure 
the  attendance  of  a  quorum  (which  was  finally  obtained),  the  con- 
tinued committee  offered  a  report, — which  was  adopted"^' — "That 
we  deem  it  expedient  to  dissolve  this  association,  and  that  it  be  and 
is  hereby  adjourned  sine  dle.'^ 

Thus  ingloriously  died  the  "  American  Society  of  Dental  Sur- 
geons." Organized  sixteen  years  before,  under  the  most  flattering 
auspices  and  with  a  membership  never  since  surpassed  in  this  coun- 
try in  high  professional  ability  and  private  reputation,  it  had,  by  a 
mistaken  course  of  conduct  obstinately  persisted  in,  defeated  its  own 
objects  and  worked  its  own  ruin.  It  had  endeavored  to  constitute 
itself  a  professional  arbiter  and  court  of  final  adjudication.  Such  as- 
sumption has  ever  been  exactly  opposed  to  the  spirit  of  our  institu- 
tions and  the  instincts  of  a  liberal  and  enlightened  community.  The 
consequences  of  such  procedure  could  not  but  be  evident,  and  were 
its  legitimate  result. 

THE   VIRGINIA   SOCIETY   OF   SURGEON   DENTISTS 

was  the  next  organization  to  the  American  Society  of  Dental  Sur- 
geons in  point  of  time,  being  organized  the  12th  of  December,  1842, 
at  Richmond,  Va.  Its  objects,  as  stated  in  resolution, f  were,  to 
benefit  the  science  and  the  community,  and  "  to  distinguish  and  re- 
ward merit,  and  discountenance  and  expose  quackery  and  charlatan- 
ism." Dr.  J.  D.  McCabe,  its  secretary  and  the  prime  mover  in  the 
enterprise,  continued  this  by  saying,|  "Too  long  has  our  fiivorite 
science  been  considered  a  mere  mechanical  trade,  into  which  every 
unprepared  quack,  acquainted  with  the  use  of  small  tools,  might  ob- 
trude himself  at  pleasure."  This  association  was  duly  incorporated 
under  the  ordinary  statutes  of  the  State  of  Virginia  regarding  cor- 
porations.§  It  was  the  first  incorporated  dental  society  in  the  world. 
The  j)rincipal  recorded  act  of  this  association  is  in  relation  to  the 
action  of  the  American  Society  of  Dental  Surgeons  on  amalgam,  and 
is  embodied  in  a  resolution  having  the  power  of  a  by-law,  passed 
October,  1845,  to  the  following  effect:  '^  Resolced,  That  we  believe 
the  use  of  all  pastes  and  cements,  of  which  mercury  is  a  part,  en- 

*  Dontal  News  Letter,  vol.  x.  p.  87. 

f  American  .Journal  of  Dental  Science,  1st  Series,  vol.  iii.  p.  146. 

X  Ibid.,  p.  227.  g  Ibid.,  vol.  v.  p.  247. 


152  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

tirely  unfit  for,  and  highly  objectionable,  as  fillinj^s  for  carious  teeth 
— that  the  use  of  them  in  dental  practice  is  empirical,  and  is  hereby 
declared  to  be  malpractice.  Resolved,  That  while  we  reprobate  the 
use  of  all  such  mercurial  preparations,  and  will  execute  our  laws 
with  fidelity  and  promptness,  we  claim  no  authority  ovet  the  opin- 
ions of  our  members,  nor  will  we  ever  require  of  them  other  pledges 
than  those  which  exist  among  honorable  men,  united  for  the  purpose 
of  im})roving  and  elevating  a  noble  science."* 

Extended  comment  on  the  above  is  unnecessary.  Suffice  it  to  say 
that  the  Virginia  society  by  it  avoided  one  of  the  reefs  on  which  its 
sister  society  went  down ;  but  how  far  other  dangers  were  evaded  by 
it  we  cannot  determine.  It  never  attained  to  prominence  in  the  pro- 
fession, and  there  are  no  existing  data  which  we  have  been  able  to 
obtain  that  determine  the  period  of  its  dissolution. 

THE    MISSISSIPPI    VALLEY'    ASSOCIATION    OF    DENTAL   SURGEONS 

was  organized  August  13th,  1844,  and  is  the  third  in  time  of  the  den- 
tal societies  of  this  country,  and  the  oldest  now  in  existence.  It  was 
the  first  association  which  abandoned  the  suppression  of  quackery  as  a 
cardinal  point  in  its  expressed  objects,  and  the  first  to  establish  as  its 
sole  end  and  aim  the  elevation  of  the  profession  without  distinction 
of  persons;  as  appears  by  the  following,  the  preamble  to  its  consti- 
tution :f  "The  undersigned,  practical  dentists  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley,  deem  it  expedient  to  form  an  association,  for  purposes  of 
mutual  improvement  in  the  science  and  practice  of  our  profession. 
Desirous  of  promoting  the  exercise  of  that  gentlemanly  courtesy 
which  siiould  characterize  members  of  liberal  professions  in  both 
social  and  professional  intercourse ;  believing  also  that  by  frequent 
interchange  of  opinions  and  observations  in  ])ractice,  by  reporting^ 
from  time  to  time,  cases  of  interest  as  they  occur  in  individual  practice, 
we  may  do  much  to  elevate  the  character  and  standing  of  our  pro- 
fession, and  make  it  worthy  the  confidence  of  an  enlightened  public." 

The  Society  also  ])assed  a  resolution  against  amalgam.  In  1847  it 
began  the  publication  of  the  Dental  Ber/ister  of  the  West,  as  a  quarterly ; 
wiiich  periodical  is  still  its  organ,  although  no  longer  in  its  possession. 

The  programme  thus  sketched  has  been  ably  and  (barring  the 
amalgam  resolution)  rigidly  adhered  to  by  this  Society  to  the  present 
time.     For  several  years  from  the  date  of  its  organization  it  con- 

*  American  .Journal  of  Dental  Science,  1st  Scries,  vol.  vi.  p.  IGO. 
t  Ibid.,  vol.  V.  p.  113. 


i 


DENTAL   ASSOCIATIONS.  153 

tinned  to  be  the  leading  dental  association  of  the  AVest,  and  was  then 
and  has  ever  been  a  power  for  good  and  progress  in  that  part  of  the 
country. 

The  fourth  regularly  organized  dental  society  in  the  United  States 
was  the 

PENNSYLVANIA   ASSOCIATION   OF   DENTAL   SURGEONS, 

organized  in  Philadelphia,  December  15th,  1845.  This  was  the  first 
organization  which  did  not,  almost  immediately  upon  its  formation, 
express  its  reprobation  of  amalgam ;  in  fjict,  its  whole  constitution 
and  by-laws  breathe  a  spirit  of  tolerance  and  primal  regard  for  the 
science  over  any  outside  issues,  which  is  in  some  contrast  to  its  pre- 
decessors in  existence,^exccpting,  perhaps,  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

This  association  has  never  obtruded  its  merits  and  position  on  the 
j)rofession;  but  has,  nevertheless,  always  kept  in  the  front  rank  of 
scientific  progress.  It  has  probably  done  more  real  work,  quietly 
and  without  ostentation,  than  any  other  dental  society;  for,  from  its 
organization  until  1864  its  meetings  were  quarterly,  and  since  that 
time  have  been  monthly,  a  record  which  no  other  similar  organiza- 
tion in  dentistry  can  exhibit. 

On  the  30th  of  October,  1847,  a  convention  of  some  forty  of  the 
dentists  of  New  York  was  held  in  that  city,  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
cussing the  formation  of  a  State  Dental  Society;  and  a  call  was  issued 
to  the  dentists  of  the  State  to  meet  in  New  York,  on  the  17th  of 
November  following.  On  that  date  the  convention  re-assembled,  and 
the  result  was  the  formation  of  the 

SOCIETY    OF    DENTAL   SURGEONS    OF   THE   STATE   OF    NEW    YORK. 

This  association  was,  in  some  measure,  the  child  of  the  American 
Society  of  Dental  Surgeons;  for  most  of  its  members  had  formerly 
belonged  (or  did  then)  to  that  Society.  The  new  body  was  intended 
as  a  sort  of  correction  of  the  old.  Its  members,  aware  of  the  error 
of  the  parent  body  in  neglecting  those  questions  which  were  of 
practical  moment  to  the  profession,  went  to  the  other  extreme  in 
endeavoring  to  avoid  it.  They  adopted  every  measure  which  aj:- 
peared  to  be  of  any  value  in  carrying  out  the  idea  of  practicality; 
the  most  prominent  of  Avhich  was  the  establishment  of  an  infirmary, 
with  clinical  practice  by  the  members. 

But,  while  they  guarded  so  zealously  some  of  the  doors  to  success, 
others  were  unheeded;  and  the  enemy  at  these  crept  silently  in.    The 


154  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

restrictions  and  qualifications  as  to  membership  were  even  less  rigor- 
ous than  with  the  American  Society  of  Dental  Surgeons;  and  the 
spirit  of  professional  freedom  and  liberality  was  carried  so  far  that 
an  attempt  was  made  to  confer  diplomas  upon  each  of  the  members, 
without  regard  to  their  real  qualifications  or  claims  for  such  a  dis- 
tinction; this  was  defeated,  however,  but  is  useful  as  showing  the 
animus  of  the  association. 

Where  the  fire  burnt  so  fiercely,  it  could  not  but  consume  its  fuel 
at  a  rapid  rate;  and  as  no  more  was  forthcoming,  it  soon  died  away. 
For  several  meetings  the  Society  was  occupied  in  arranging  and  per- 
fecting its  many  schemes  for  professional  aggrandizement;  but  when 
the  time  came  to  put  them  in  practice,  they  were  found  to  j)erform 
but  poorly,  and  the  interest  of  the  members  in  their  work,  at  first  so 
keen  and  vigorous,  became  gradually  less,  and  finally  ceased  entirely. 
We  have  not  been  able  to  obtain  any  data  respecting  the  decease  of 
this  association,  but  it  is  certain  that  ijt  occurred  not  a  very  long 
time  after  its  birth. 

At  the  same  time  that  the  proposition  for  a  dissolution  of  the 
American  Society  of  Dental  Surgeons  was  presented,  a  suggestion 
was  advanced  by  the  committee  making  the  report  (in  consequence 
of  remarks  in  the  address  of  the  President,  Dr.  E.  Townsend),  that 
an  effort  should  be  made  to  form  another  society,  without  any  re- 
strictions, so  that  every  one  in  the  country  claiming  to  be  a  dentist 
could  be  received  as  a  member.* 

It  is  evident  that  the  American  Society  had  at  length  become 
awake  to  a  knowledge  of  the  fact  that  if  they  would  be  the  leaders 
of  dental  progress,  they  could  not  also  be  its  drivers  ;  that  force,  in 
conducting  jniblic  sentiment,  was  an  element  not  always  to  be  safely 
handled.  But,  in  looking  for  the  causes  of  their  ill  success  in  former 
years,  they  saw,  plainest  of  all,  and  as  very  apparent  and  sufficient 
obstacles,  certain  enactments  growing,  as  they  imagined,  out  of  a 
system  of  laws  which  they  had  established,  in  the  shape  of  a  consti- 
tution. Immediately  attributing  to  this  insti'ument  the  troubles  pre- 
viously undergone,  they  sought,  by  establishing  an  institution  "with- 
out restrictions,"  to  obviate  any  similar  future  difficulties.  They  also 
judged  that  an  association  which  should  aim  to  include  the  majority 
of  dentists  in  its  ranks,  must  interpose  as  few  obstacles  as  possible  to 
the  entrance  of  members,  and  perform  no  after-acts  which  might 
excite  feelings  at  variance  with  the  existence  of  the  body  as  such.  • 

*  Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  i.  p.  198. 


^  DENTAL   ASSOCIATIONS.  155 

The  result  of  these  considerations  was  the  formation  of  the 

AMERICAN    DENTAL   CONVENTION, 

at  Philadelphia,  August  2d,  3d,  and  4th,  1855.*  The  title  of  the 
body,  as  first  suggested,  was  the  "  American  Dental  Congress,^'  which 
was,  after  some  discussion,  changed  to  that  given  above.t  The  plan 
of  organization  (contained  in  a  series  of  "Articles  of  Association") 
comprehended  the  admission  as  members  of  "practitioners  of  dentistry 
and  auxiliary  branches  of  science," — that  a  majority  should  elect 
such  members,  the  voting  for  them  to  take  place  immediately  upon 
nomination,  and  to  be  by  ballot  ovviva  voce  as  then  determined, — and 
that  the  meetings  be  yearly,  and  the  officers  serve  for  a  like  term 4 

At  this  meeting  upward  of  eighty  dentists  became  members.  The 
proceedings  were  interesting,  and  continued  to  be  so,  to  a  considerable 
number  of  practitioners,  for  several  years,  and  the  membership  in- 
creased so  that  at  the  third  session  (Boston,  1857),  over  one  hundred 
and  ninety  names  were  on  the  rolls. 

Experience,  however,  had  caused  great  fear  of  "  red  tape"  in  the 
conduct  of  societies.  At  the  second  session  (New  York,  1856)  the 
membership  articles  of  the  constitution  were  suspended,  and  at  the 
subsequent  meeting  the  whole  of  that  instrument  was  abrogated,  and 
the  Convention  rendered  an  open  one.  So  fearful  were  the  members 
that  an  a])pearance  of  authority  should  be  given  to  the  proceedings 
of  the  association,  that  they  would  not  permit  the  appointment  of  a 
committee,  to  which  to  refer  a  minor  niatter.§ 

xlt  this  meeting  a  resolution  was  passed  ||  providing  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  "a  fund  for  the  promotion  of  dental  science,  with  es- 
pecial reference  to  the  employment  of  some  competent  person  or 
persons  to  conduct  experiments, — physiological,  pathological,  chemi- 
cal, and  hygienic, — as  connected  with  dental  science." 

This  appears  to  have  been  the  first  "overt  act"  to  cause  any  feel- 
ins:  ajrainst  the  efficiencv  and  value  of  the  Convention.  It  was  said 
of  this  resolution, — and,  it  must  be  confessed,  with  reason, — "  Have 
we  become  so  low  as  to  be  mere  mechanics,  leaving  the  scientific  part 
of  our  work  to  some  man  or  other  who  does  the  thinking  for  us  for 
dollars  and  cents?  ....  There  is,  then,  no  further  need  for  study. 
'.  .  .  .  Henceforth,  when  the  day's  operating  is  done,  we  may  sit  in 
our  easy-chairs  and  read  novels,  knowing  that  "  the  man"  will  send 

*  Dental  News  Letter,  vol.  ix.  p.  2.  t  Ibid. 

X  Ibid.  I  Ibid.,  vol.  xi!  p.  4  et  seq.  \\  Ibid,  p.  58. 


I 


156  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN'    DENTISTRY. 

US  results  when  he  gets  at  them."*  This  was,  no  doubt,  a  very  severe 
rebuke  to  a  body  assuming  any  scientific  importance  or  character; 
but  it  was  certainly  deserved. 

But  this  was  not  the  only  cause  for  complaint  against  the  new       ' 
institution.     The  character  of  its  proceedings  was  very  severely  criti- 
cised as  being   much  below  the  standard  demanded  by  the  times. 
These  were  eminently  progressive  in  every  branch  of  science,  natural 
and  other.     Xever  in  the  history  of  our  country  had  it  shown  so 
much  vitality,  such   an  exuljcrance  of  life-force,  as  then.     In   the 
eloquent  language  of  Dr.  McQuillen,  "  Xever  at  any  period  was  the 
iconoclastic  spirit  more  rampant  than  now.     The  land  is  strewn  with 
the  wrecks  of  broken  idols.     Doctrines  respectable  from  the  very       i 
grayuess  of  their  antiquity  are  rudely  hauled  up  to  the  bar  of  pop-       1 
ular  judgment,  and  as  summarily  dispatched.     Social  and  political       "^ 
dogmas  that  have  stood  undisturbed  for  centuries,  recognized  of  all        i 
men  as  true  and  real,  vanish  into  thin  air  before  the  sharp  scrutiny        | 
of  modern  inquiry. "f 

In  allusion  to  the  report  of  the  proceedings  of  the  third  meeting  ^ 
it  was  said, — "Such  an  incongruous  mixture  of  sense  and  nonsense 
was  probably  never  heard  before  in  any  so-called  scientific  convention.  a 
.  .  .  .  Nothing  was  said  to  throw  a  new  light  upon  any  subject  under 
discussion,  and  no  papers  were  rcad.  The  conclusion  which  must  be 
arrived  at  by  any  one  Mho  takes  this  body  of  men  as  a  representa- 
tion of  the  profession  is,  that  Ave  are  a  set  of  mere  manipulators,  but 
by  no  means  scientific  men."]; 

In  short,  and  in  effect,  the  experiment  of  the  Convention  was  voted, 
by  the  best  class  of  dentists,  to  have  been  a  failure.  "  Its  day  of 
usefulness  is  apparently*  passed  ;  its  absurdities  censured  with  just 
cause;  losing  the  support  of  its  best  men,  its  end  seems  near  at 
hand."§ 

This  prophecy,  however,  was  not  true ;  for  the  Convention  still 
exists,  and  meets  the  requirements  of,  and  is  a  great  aid  to,  many  in 
the  profession. 

In  this  state  of  affliirs  it  became  a  necessity  that  another  association 
should  be  attem})ted,  and  this  matter  was  much  agitated  in  all  parts 
of  the  country.  Various  plans  of  organization  were  advocated  ;  and, 
as  was  proper,  the  schemes  of  the  two  former  national  societies — th« 


*  Aniericiin  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  2d  Series,  vol.  viii.  pp.  242-3. 
+  Dental  News  Letter,  vol.  xii.  p.  184. 

+  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  2d  Series,  vol.  viii.  p.  241. 
^  Dental  News  Letter,  vol.  xii.  p.  185. 


DENTAL    ASSOCIATIONS.  157 

American  Society  of  Dental  Surgeons  and  the  American  Dental  Con- 
vention— were  thoronghly  reviewed.  In  the  latter  the  eifects  of 
absolute  latitude  in  the  admission  of  members  were,  at  length,  glar- 
ingly apparent,  and  it  was,  after  many  years,  discovered  that  the  true 
secret  of  failure  of  these  associations  lay,  not  in  the  fact  that  tliey  had 
or  had  not  systems  of  laws,  or  in  those  laws,  as  such,  but  in  the  basis 
of  indiscriminate  membership  upon  which  they  had  been  founded. 
It  was  finally  seen  that  "  the  absence  of  a  constitution,  laws,  or 
qualifications  for  membership,  partakes  of  the  transient,  not  tlie  es- 
tablished."* 

Defects  are  always  plain  to  the  sight;  but  it  is  not  always  so  easy 
to  remedy  them.  A  happy  solution  to  the  difficulties  of  forming  an 
association  which  should  be  at  once  stable  and  yielding, — easy  of 
access,  yet  with  exact  and  firmly  held  qualifications  for  membership; 
having  a  high  scientific  aim  and  character,  yet  into  which  the  tyro 
could  come  and  learn  of  his  elders ;  possessing  an  organized  and 
authoritative  government,  which  should  "derive  its  just  powers  from 
the  consent  of  the  governed  ;"  and  holding  inherent  from  all  these 
the  elements  of  permanence,  popularity,  and  authority, — was  at 
length  found  in  the  system  of  delegation  adopted  by  the 

AMERICAN    DENTAL    ASSOCIATION. 

This  plan  of  organization  was  founded  on  that  of  the  American  Med- 
ical Association,  and  its  initiation  was  effected  mainly  through  the 
advocacy  of  Dr.  J.  H.  McQuillen.t 

It  met  with  much  opposition.  At  a  meeting  of  dentists  in  New 
York  City  (June,  1859),  among  other  resolutions  on  the  subject  was 
passed  the  following : 

"Resolved,  That  it  is  the  duty  of  every  dentist  who  desires  the 
advancement  of  the  profession  to  attend  the  convention  at  Niagara 
Falls,  and  use  his  influence  against  any  action  tending  to  dissolve 
the  American  Convention,  or  to  create  any  delegated  organization.'' X 

Against  such  an  animus  it  would  appear  folly  to  have  i)ro('eeded. 
Happily,  the  feelings  thus  represented  did  not  pertain  to  that  portion 
of  the  profession  from  which  it  was  hoped  to  form  the  new  associa- 
tion. A  call  for  a  meeting  of  delegates  was  promptly  and  cordially 
responded  to,  and  twenty-five  delegated  members  (from  eight  local 

*  Dental  News  Letter,  vol.  xii.  p.  185. 

t  See  article  in  Dental  News  Letter,  vol.  xii.  p.  184,  over  the  signature  of 
y  Junius." 

J  The  italics  are  ours. 


158  HISTORY    OF    AMEllICAN    DENTISTRY. 

societies  and  two  dental  oollei^es)  met  at  Xiaijara  Falls  in  August, 
1859,  ami  while  the  American  Dental  Convention  was  there  also  in 
session,  they  organized  the  American  Dental  Association,  and  drew 
up  a  form  of  constitution  and  by-laws  which  was  adopted  the  next 
year  in  Washington. 

In  18G1  the  Rebellion  broke  out,  and  there  was  no  meeting  of  the 
Association.  In  18G2  it  convened  at  Clevelantl  with  only  fourteen 
niendu'rs.  In  18G3,  in  Philadelphia,  fifty-six  members  were  present. 
At  Niagara,  in  1864,  there  were  eighty-eight,  and  in  Chicago,  in 
1805,  there  were  one  hundred  and  twenty-four.  At  the  meeting  of 
1870,  beside  the  permanent  membership,  delegates  from  forty-seven 
societies  and  three  colleges  were  present.  The  membershi})  is  larger 
now  than  ever  before,  but  the  attendance  since  18G5  will  not,  as  an 
average,  vary  nuich  from  the  number  of  that  year. 

The  principal  official  act  of  this  Society  is  the  promulgation  of  a 
code  of  denial  ethics,  in  Boston,  18GG.  This  code,  or  its  equivalent, 
was  adopted  by  many  of  the  societies  in  the  country,  and  is  still  held 
by  most  of  them  ;  but  it  ai)pears  to  have  sufficiently  served  its  original 
purpose;  for  in  the  formation  of  new  societies  at  the  present  time 
it  is  being  considerably  modified.  Such  change,  however,  seems  to 
have,  thus  far,  consisted  maiidy  in  condensation;  wliich  is  the  best 
possible  eulogy  of  the  spirit  of  the  old  code. 

"Thus,  this  Association,  conceived  at  a  period  apparently  the  niost ' 
inausj)icious,  and  rocked  in  the  cradle  of  adversity,  has  gained  fair 
proportions,  and  exercised  a  powerful  infiuence  in  the  profession,  by 
stimulating  individual  and  associated  effort.  It  will  be  folly  to  re- 
gard its  organization  as  i)erfect."*  It  has  met,  however,  and  evi- 
dently still  fills,  the  needs  of  the  profession  in  this  direction. 

GENERAL   STATISTICS. 

Under  this  head  will  be  presented  a  statistical  review  of  the  va- 
rious dental  as.sociations  formed  in  this  country  uj)  to  the  present. 
Indidgence,  however,  is  craved  for  lack  of  fullness  in  many  cases. 
In  the  short  space  of  tinie  allowed  ibr  the  preparation  of  this  work, 
it  has  been  found  impossible  to  secure  such  complete  information  in 
this  regard  as  could  be  wished.  However,  it  has  been  deemed  better 
to  present  even  a  partial  account  than  to  entirely  ignore  the  matter; 

*  Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  vii.  p.  79. 


I 


DENTAL  ASSOCIATIONS.  159 

and  siK'li  representations  as  are  liere  made  may  be  considered  to  be 
mainly  correct. 

The  varions  associations  are  placed  in  the  order  of  their  forma- 
tion, chronologically,  without  reference  to  any  other  consideration. 
Wherever  possible,  the  original  and  present  officers  have  been  named, 
and  such  other  matters  of  principal  importance  as  are  at  hand. 
Where  such  information  is  not  inserted,  its  absence  n)ay  be  concluded 
to  have  arisen  from  the  reasons  above  stated. 


American  Society  of  Dental  Surgeons. 

Organized  in  New  York  City,  as  a  national  association,  August 
18th,  1840.  First  officers :— Horace  H.  Hayden,  M.D.,  President, 
Josiah  F.  Flagg,  M.D.,  First  Vice-President ;  Eleazer  Parmly, 
INI.D.,  Second  Vice-President ;  E.  B.  Gardette,*  Third  Vice-Presi- 
dent; Solyman  Brown,  A.M.,  Recording  Secretary;  Chapin  A. 
Harris,  M.I).,  Corresponding  Secretary ;  Elisha  Baker,  Treasurer ; 
J.  H.  Foster,  M.D.,  Librarian. 

Dr.  Hayden  continued  in  the  office  of  President  until  his  death, 
in  1844,  when  Dr.  Eleazer  Parndy  was  elected  to  the  position,  and 
filled  it  until  1853,  when  he  declined  serving  further,  and  Dr.  Elisha 
Townsend  was  elected  and  I'emained  in  office  until  the  dissolution  of 
the  Society,  which  occurred  August  7th,  185G. 

The  Virginia  Society  of  Surgeon  Dentists. 

Organized  in  Richmond,  Virginia,  December  12th,  1842.  First 
officers: — S.  Lethbridge,  President;  John  G.  Wayt,  Vice-President; 
James  D.  INIcCabe,  Corresponding  and  Recording  Secretary ;  S.  INI. 
Sheppard,  Treasurer ;  W.  W.  H.  Thackston,  R.  N.  Hudson,  John 
McConnell,  T.  B.  Ilamblin,  William  M.  McKenney,  Executive,  Ex- 
amining, and  Publishing  Committee. 

An  incorjioratcd  body.  It  is  not  believed  to  have  had  a  long 
existence;  though  the  })eriod  of  its  dissolution  is  not  known. 

Tlie  3Iississippi  Valley  Association  of  Dental  Surgeons. 
Organized    in   Cincinnati,  Ohio,  August   13th,  1844.      First  offi- 

*  Dr.  Gardette,  haviiiij  boen  elected  without  his  knovvlcdjjo,  afterward  refused 
to  be  so  connected  with  the  S.iciely.    His  place  docs  not  appear  to  have  been  filled. 


V 

i 


160  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY.  _ 

eers: — Jesse  W.  Cook,  President;  A.  D.  Bigelow,  First  Vice-Presi- 
dent; Josepli  Taylor,  ^Second  Vice-President;  D.  P.  Hunt,  I'/iird 
Vice-President ;  AV.  B.  Ross,  Recording  Secretary;  James  Taylor, 
Corresponding  Secretary;  Charles  Bonsall,  Treasurer;  INI.  Koger.s, 
John  Allen,  F.  E.  Suirc,  Executive  Committee. 
The  oldest  dental  association  now  in  existence. 

The  Pennsylvania  Association  of  Dental  Surgeons. 

Organized    in    Philadelpliia,  December   15th,  1845.     First    offi- 
cers:— G.  A.  Vhntou,  President;  Ely  Parry,  First  Vice-President; 
Stephen  T.  Beale,  Second  Vice-President ;  C.  C.  AYilliams,  Recording 
Secretary;  R.  Arthur,  Corresponding  Secretary;  F.  Reinstein,  Trea^-         m 
urer. 

Present  officers: — Spencer  Roberts,  President;  J.  H.  Githens, 
Vice-President;  Joseph  Petti t,  Secretary;  E.  H.  Neall,  Ireasurer; 
W.  H.  Trueman,  Librarian. 

The  Society  of  Dental  Surgeons  of  the  State  of  New  York. 

Organized  in  New  York  City,  November  17th,  1847.  First  offi- 
cers:— L.  Covell,  President;  J.  G.  Ambler,  Secretary;  Geo.  E. 
Hawes,  Treasurer.  These  were  elected  pro  tern.,  but  held  their  po- 
sitions until  the  yearly  meeting  of  the  following  year.  This  Society 
did  not  exist  very  long. 

Society  of  the  Alumni  of  the  Baltimore  College  of  Dental  Surgery. 

Organized  in  Baltimore,  March  1st,  1849.  First  officers: — H. 
Colburn,  President;  P.  H.  Austen,  Vice-President;  C.  O.  Cone, 
Treasurer;  R.  W.  Armstrong,  Corresponding  Secretary;  M.  J. 
Cherry,  Recording  Secretary. 

No  longer  in  existence. 

The  Xeiv  Hampshire  Dental  Society. 

Organized  in  Concord,  June  1st,  1853.  First  officers: — M.  T. 
Willard,  ^LD.,  P/-cs/(/c'»^;  Abraham  Robertson,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  T7ce- 
President;  L.  F.  Locke,  M.D.,  Secretary;  J.  W.  Little,  M.D., 
Treasurer ;  A.  Severance,  Auditor. 

This  association  is  not  now  in  existence. 


DENTAL   ASSOCIATIONS.  IGl 


JWrnont  Society  of  Dental  Surgeons. 

Organized  in  Montpelier,  October  25tli,  1854.  First  officers: — 
O.  R.  Post,  President;  M.  Newton,  First  Vice-Premdent ;  Josephus 
Brock  way.  Second  Vice-President ;  E.  V.  N.  Harwood,  Recording 
Secretary;  N.  G.  Hale,  Corresponding  Secretary ;  E.  H.  Kilbourne, 
Treasurer ;  G.  H.  Kilbourne,  Librarian. 

This  society  is  not  in  existence. 

American  Dental  Convention. 

Organized  in  Philadelphia,  August  2d,  3d,  4th,  1855.  First  offi- 
cers : — J.  B.  Rich,  President;  J.  S.  Clarke,  Vice-President ;  J.  H. 
McQuillen,  Corresponding  Secretary;  Charles  Bonsall,  Recording 
Secretary. 

Subsequent  Presidents  in  their  order,  to  date:  1856,  Chapin  A. 
Harris,  M.D.;  1857,  James  Taylor;  1858,  Isaiah  Forbes;  1859, L. 
AV.  Rogers;  1860,  T.  L.  Buckingham,  D.D.S.;  1861,  John  Allen, 
D.D.S.;  1862,  A.  Westcott,  M.D.;  1863,  J.  Taft,  D.D.S.;  1864, 
W.  W.  AUport;  1865,  H.  E.  Peebles;  1866,  \V.  B.  Hurd ;  1867, 
J.  G.  Ambler;  1868,  J.  M.  Crowell;  1869,  J.  G.  Ambler;  1870, 
J.  G.  Ambler;  1871,  Wm.  Dutch;  1872,  I.  J.  Wetherbee;  1873, 
John  Allen,  D.D.S.;  1874,  B.  F.  Coy;  1875,  B.  F.  Coy. 

The  remaining  officers  elected  in  1875  are,  C.  S.  Stockton,  Vice- 
President;  Ambler  Tees,  Recording  Secretary;  S.  Welchens,  Corre- 
sponding Secretary;  J.  G.  Ambler,  Treasurer. 

Western  Dental  Society.. 

Organized  in  St.  Louis,  April  3d,  1856.  First  officers : — Edward 
Hale,  Sr.,  President;  H.  E.  Peebles,  First  Vice-President;  W.  W. 
AWport,  Second  Vice-President;  Henry  Barron,  Recording  Secretary; 
C.  AV.  Spalding,  Corresponding  Secretary;  A.  Black,  Treasurer. 

North  Carolina  Dental  Society. 

Organized  in  Raleigh,  October  17th,  1856.  First  ofificers : — "NV. 
F.  Bason,  President;  T.  W.  Howlett,  Vice-President;  W.  C.  Ben- 
bow,  Secretary;  R.  P.  Bessent,  Treasurer. 

Believed  to  be  not  now  in  existence. 

12 


162  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAN   DENTISTRY. 

St.  Louis  Dental  Society. 

Organized  in  St.  Louis,  December  16tli,  1856.  First  officers  : — 
S.  Dunham,  President;  A.  Blake,  Vice-President ;  A.  M.  Leslie, 
Secretary;  G.  H.  Perrine,  Treasurei\ 

Pennsylvania  Central  Society  of  Dental  Surgeons. 

Organized  in  Tyrone  City,  Pennsylvania,  May  6th,  1857.  First 
officers  : — D.  D.  Hutchinson,  President ;  J.  W.  Crawford,  Vio(- 
President;  S.  Kimraell,  Secretary ;  W.  D.  Bitner,  Treasurer. 

New  York  Dental  Society. 

Organized  in  New  York  City,  December  2d,  1857.  First  offi- 
cei-s : — J.  G.  Ambler,  Secretary;  W.  B.  Roberts,  Treasurer.  The 
Chairman  to  be  appointed  at  each  meeting. 

This  association  was  not  of  long  duration. 

Indiana  State  Dental  Convention. 

Organized  in  Indianapolis,  December  28th,  1858.  First  offi- 
cers : — ^J.  F.  Johnston,  President;  J.  P.  Ulrey,  P.  G.  C.  Hunt,  A.  M. 
ISIoore,  Vice-Presidents ;  G.  C.  Korth,  Secretary. 

Georgia  Dental  Society. 

Organized  in  Macon,  Ga.,  July  1st,  1859.  First  officers: — D.  S. 
Chase,  President;  F.  Y.  Clark,  First  Vice-President;  G.  W.  Emer- 
son, Second  Vice-President;  W.  F.  Lee,  Recording  Secretary;  E. 
Parsons,  Coiresponding  Secretary ;  J.  Fogle,  Treasurer. 

American  Dental  Association. 

Organized  in  Niagara  Falls,  August  3d,  1859,  and  in  Washington, 
D.  C,  July  31st,  1860.  First  officers  (elected  in  I860):— \Vm.  H. 
Atkinson,  jSLD,,  D.D.S.,  President;  J.  B.  Gibbs,  First  Vice-Presi- 
dent; F.  Y.  Clark,  M.D.,  Second  Vice-President;  J.  Taft,  D.D.S., 
Recording  Secretary  ;  W.  Muir  Rogers,  Corresponding  Secretary.  The 
Chairman  at  the  preliminary  meeting  in  1859  was  W.  W.  Allport, 
M.D.,  and  the  Secretary  J.  Taft,  D.D.S. 


i 
( 


DENTAL   ASSOCIATIONS.  163 

The  successive  places  of  meeting  and  Presidents  since  the  above  are 
as  follows  :  No  meeting  in  1861 ;  Cleveland,  Ohio,  1862,  Geo.  AVatt; 
Philadelphia,  1863,  W.  H.  Allen  ;  Niagara  Falls,  1864,  J.  H. 
McQuillen,  M.D. ;  Chicago,  1865,  C.  W.  Spalding;  Boston,  1866, 
C.  P.  Fitch  ;  Cincinnati,  1867,  A.  Lawrence;  Niagara  Falls,  1868, 
Jonathan  Taft,  D.D.S. ;  Saratoga,  1869,  Homer  Judd ;  Nashville, 

1870,  W.  H.  Morgan  ;  Greenbrier,  White  Sulphur  Springs,  W.  Va., 

1871,  George  H.  Gushing;  Niagara  Falls,  1872,  P.  G.  C.  Hunt; 
Put-in-Bay,  Ohio,  1873,  T.  L.Buckingham,  D.D.S. ;  Detroit,  Mich., 
1874,  M.  S.  Dean;  Niagara  Falls,  1875,  A.  L.  Northrop,  D.D.S. 

The  remaining  officers  elected  at  the  last  session  areas  follows :  H. 
J.  McKellops,  D.D.S.,  First  Vice-President;  H.  A.  Smith,  D.D.S., 
Second  Vice-President ;  J.  H.  McQuillen,  M.D.,  Corresponding  Sec- 
retary;  C.  Stoddard  Smith,  D.D.S.,  Recording  Secretary ;  W.  H. 
Goddard,  D.D.S.,  Treasurer ;  L.  D.  Shepard  (Chairman),  M.  H. 
"Webb  (Secretary),  Geo.  L.  Field,  A.  H.  Brockway,  G.  R.  Thomas, 
G.  H.  Gushing,  G.  C.  Daboll,  T.  L.  Buckingham,  S.  B.  Palmer, 
Executive  Committee. 

New   York  State  Dental  Association. 

Organized  in  New  York  City,  September  6th,  1859.  First  offi- 
cers: — A.  Westcott,  M.D.,  President;  John  Allen,  First  Vice-Presi- 
dent; C.  W.  Harvey,  Second  Vice-President ;  G.  H.  Ferine,  Record- 
ing Secretary;  A.  Clark,  Corresponding  Secretary;  W.  H.  Hurd, 
Treasurer. 

This  society  is  no  longer  in  existence. 


New  York  Society  of  Dental  Surgeons. 

Organized  in  and  for  New  York  City,  March  13th,  1860.  First 
officers : — A.  Mcllroy,  President;  F.  H.  Clark,  First  Vice-Presi- 
dent; T.  H.  Burras,  Second  Vice-President ;  E.  C.  Rush  more,  Re- 
cording  Secretary ;  B.  AV.  Franklin,  Corresponding  Secretary ;  James 
T.  Stratton,  Treasurer;  John  Allen,  Librarian, 

This  association  is  not  in  existence. 


Kentucky  State  Dental  Association. 
Organized  in  Lexington,  April  24th,  1860.     First  officers: — W. 


164  HISTORY    OF   AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

D.Stone,  President;  Richard  Peckover,   Vi£e-Premdent ;  W.  Muir, 
Rogers,  Secretary  ;  J.  A.  McClelland,  Treasurer. 

Nwthern  Ohio  Dental  Association. 

Organized  in  Cleveland,  March  6th,  1860.  First  officers: — B. 
Strickland,  President;  H.  P.  Hnntington,  Vice-President;  C.  'R. 
Butler,  Recording  Secretary ;  B.  F.  Robinson,  Corresponding  Secre- 
tary;  F.  S.  Slosson,  Treasurei\ 

Brooklyn  Dental  Association. 

Organized  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  June  12th,  1862.  First  officers: — 
Wra.  C.  Parks,  President;  A.  C.  Hawes,  Vice-President ;  Jno.  Allen, 
Treasurer;  Wm.  B.  Hurd,  Secretary. 

Western  New  York  Dental  Society. 

Organized  in  Rochester,  October  1st,  1862.  First  officers: — C. 
W.  Harvey,  President;  L.  W.  Bristol,  Secretary. 

This  association  dissolved  May  5th,  1869,  its  membership  being 
merged  into  district  societies  under  the  law. 

Central  New   York  Dental  Association. 

Organized  in  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  March  23d,  1863.     First  officers: — 

D.  S.  Ball,  President;    D.  W.  Perkins,  Vice-President;  S.  B.  Pal- 
mer, Becording  Secretary;  A.  T.  Smith,   Corresponding  Secretary ; 

E.  M,  Skinner,  Treasurer. 

This  association  was  eventually  merged  in  the  district  societies  of 
its  section  instituted  under  the  law  of  the  State. 

Odontographic  Society  of  Pennsylvania, 

Organized  in  Philadelphia,  May  19th,  1863.  First  officers: — 
Jacob  Gilliams,  Prcsidcid;  John  McCalla,  C.  A.  Kingsbury,  Vice- 
Presidents ;  Louis  M.  Lusson,  Becording  Secretary;  J.  H.  McQuil- 
len,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  Corresponding  Secretary  ;  Thomas  Wardle,  M.D., 
Treasurer  ;  Wm.  P.  Henry,  Librarian. 
Present  officers  :—F.  M.  Dixon,  President;  M.  II.  Webb,  E.  T. 


I 

I 
I 


f 


DENTAL   ASSOCIATIONS.  •  165 

Darby,  Vice-Presidents;  E.  L.  Hewitt,  Recording  Secretary ;  J.  H. 
^NIcQuillen,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  Corresponding  Secretary;  S.  H.  Guilford, 
Treasurer;  J.  L.  Eisenbrey,  Librarian ;  S.  S.  Nones,  Curator;  T. 
C.  Stelhvagen,  C.  A.  Kingsbury,  Robert  Huey ,  Mvecutive  Committee. 

Iowa  State  Dental  Society. 

Organized  in  Muscatine,  Iowa,  in  July,  1863.  Incorporated  1867. 
First  officei's: — H.  S.  Chuse,  President ;  J.  Hardman,  M ce-P resident ; 
W.  O.  Kulp,  Corresponding  Secretary ;  A.  J.  MeGarvey,  Recording 
Secretary  and  Treasurer. 

Present  officers: — T.  A.  Hallett,  President;  M.  L.  Jackson,  Vice- 
President;  John  Rix,  Corresponding  Secretary ;  E.  E.  Hughes,  Re- 
cording Secretary  and  Treasurer. 

Ilerrimac  Valley  Dental  Association. 

Organized  in  Lowell,  Massachusetts,  October  29th,  1863.  First 
officers  : — A.  Lawrence,  President ;  D.  K.  Boutelle,  S.  H.  Elliott,  E. 
G.  Cnmmings,  Vice-Presidents;  G.  A.  Gerry,  Recording  Secretary  ; 
L.  F.  Locke,  Corresponding  Secretary ;  S.  Lawrence,  Treasurer. 

Present  officers :— A.  M.  Dudley,  D.D.S.,  President;  T.  Fille- 
brown,  D.M.D.,  L.  F.  Locke,  M.D^,  Vice-Presidents;  W.  E.  Riggs, 
D.D.S.,  Recording  Secretary;  J.  H.  Kidder,  M.D.,  Corresponding 
Secretary;  H.  Hill,  D.D.S.,  Treasurer;  A.  Lawrence,  M.D.,  Zd- 
brarian. 

Annual  meeting  in  November;   semi-annual  in  May. 

Connecticut  Valley  Dental  Society. 

Organized  in  Springfield,  Massachusetts,  November  10th,  1863. 
First  officers: — F.  Searle,  President;  O.  R.  Post,  C.  Stratton,  Vice- 
Presidents;  h.  J).  Shepurd,  Secretary ;  H.M.Miller,  Treasurer;  E. 
V.  N.  Harwood,  C.  S.  Hurl  but,  A.  A.  Howland,  Executive  Committee. 

Meets  semi-annually,  in  November  and  June. 

Present  officers:— H.  F.  Bishop,  President;  H.  AY.  Clapp,  E.  M. 
Goodrich,  Vice-Presidents;  C.  T.  Stockwell,  Secretary;  N.  Morgan, 
Treasurer. 

Delaware  Dental  Association. 
Organized  in  Wilmington,  October  1st,  1863.     First  officers : — 


166  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

S.  Marshall,  President;  W.  G.  A.  Bonwill,  Vice-President;  S.  S. 
Nones,  Corresponding  Secretary;  J.  P.  O'Daniel,  Recording  Seo'e- 
tary ;  C.  R.  Jefferis,  Treasurer;  W.  D.  Xolen,  Librarian. 

Hudson  Valley  Dental  Association. 

Organized  in  Troy,  New  York,  December  29th,  1863.  First  offi- 
cers : — H.  H.  Young,  President;  S.  D.  French,  Vice-President;  S. 
J.  Andres,  Recording  Seeretary ;  S.  P.  Welsh,  Corresponding  Secre- 
tary; O.  R.  Young,  Treasurer. 

Chicago  Dental  Society. 

Organized  in  Chicago,  February  8th,  1864.  First  officers : — E. 
W.  Hadley,  President;  J.  H.  Young,  L.  Bush,  Vice-Presidents ;  E. 
AV.  Sawyer,  Secretary ;  J.  C.  Dean,  Treasurer;  W.  W.  Allport,  Li- 
brarian. 

Present  officers  : — C.  R.  E.  Koch,  President;  A.  W.  Harlan,  J.  A. 
W.  Davis,  Vice-Presidents ;  D.  B.  Freeman,  Recording  Secretary ; 
J.  S.  Swartley,  Corresponding  Secretary ;  M.  S.  Dean,  Ti^easurer ;  C. 
R.  E.  Koch,  Librarian. 

Massachusetts  Dental  Soddy. 

Organized  in  Boston,  March  4th,  1864.  First  officers  : — N.  C. 
Keep,  President ;  I.  J.  AVetherbee,  Vice-President ;  T.  H.  Chandler, 
Recording  Secretary ;  E.  C.  Rolfe,  Corresponding  Secretary ;  S.  J. 
McDougall,  Treasurer;  E.  N.  Harris,  Librarian;  I.A.Salmon,  A. 
A.  Cook,  B.  S.  Codman,  H.  F.  Bishop,  T.  B.  Hitchcock,  Executive 
Committee. 

Incorporated  April  1st,  1865.  Present  officers: — J.  T.  Codman, 
President;  D.  G.  Harrington,  A.  M.  Dudley,  Vice-Presidents ;  G.  F. 
Grant,  Recording  Secretary ;  T.  H.  Chandler,  Corresponding  Secre- 
tary;  E.  Page,  Treasurer  ;  G.  F.  Grant,  Librarian  ;  R.  R.  Andrews, 
Microscopist ;  Thomas  Cogswell,  J.  S.  Hurlbut,  E.  P.  Bradbury, 
A.  !M,  Dudley,  T.  O.  Loveland,  Executive  Committee.  Meetings  semi- 
annually. 

Wabash  Valley  Dental  Association. 

Organized  in  Lafayette,  Indiana,  April  20th,  1864.  First  offi- 
cers: — A.  M.  Moore,  President;  W.  H.  Pifer,  Secretary. 


DENTAL   ASSOCIATIONS.  167 


Buffalo  DeiUal  Association. 

Organized  in  Buffalo,  New  York,  May  27th,  1864.  First  officers:— 
Geo.  E.  Hayes,  President;  R.  G.  Snow,  Vice-President ;  Geo.  B.  Snow, 
Secretary ;  J.  R.  AVetherill,  Treasurer. 

Connecticut  State  Dental  Association. 

Organized  in  Hartford,  October  20th,  1864.  First  officers : — A. 
mU,  President;  W.^Y.  Sheffield,  Vice-President;  James  McManus, 
Recording  Secretary ;  Leroy  D.  Pelton,  Corresponding  Secretary ;  E. 
E.  Crofoot,  D-easu7'er ;  Chas.  P.  Graham,  Librarian.  Semi-annual 
meetings. 

Susquehanna  Dental  Association. 

Organized  in  Danville,  Pennsylvania,  early  in  1864.  First 
officers  : — J.  M.  Barrett,  President ;  G.  B.  Brown,  Vice-President ; 
John  D.  Wingate,  Recording  Secretary ;  M.  D.  L.  Dodson,  Cor- 
responding  Secretary ;  H.  H.  Martin,  Treasurer ;  John  Locke, 
Librarian. 

Hai'tford  Society  of  Dentists. 

Organized  in  Hartford,  Connecticut,  June  12th,  1865.  First  offi- 
cers : — John  M.  Riggs,  President ;  E.  E.  Crofoot,  Vice-President ; 
C.  M.  Hooker,  Secretary ;  Wm.  Blatchley,  Treasurer. 

Illinois  State  Dental  Society. 

Organized  in  Chicago,  July  24th,  1865.  First  officers : — A.  C. 
Van  Sant,  President;  E.  Honsinger,  Vice-President ;  Edgar  Park, 
Secretary ;  S.  Babcock,  Treasurer;  J.  A.  Truesdell,  Librarian. 

Central  Ohio  Dental  Association. 

Organized  in  Mansfield,  Ohio,  September  5th,  1865,  First  offi- 
cers: — James  Armstrong,  President;  M.  De  Camp,  Mce- President ; 
A.  W.  Maxwell,  Recording  Secretary ;  H.  J.  Cressinger,  Correspond- 
ing Secretary ;  F.  AY.  Semple,  Treasurer. 


16S  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAN   DENTISTRY. 

St.  Louis  Odontological  Society. 

Organized  in  St.  Louis,  October  26th,  1865.  First  officers : — E. 
Hale,  Jr.,  Preaident;  J.  Payne,  Vice-President;  G.  G.  Samuel,  Cor- 
responding Secretary  ;   G.  H.  Silvers,  Recording  Secretary. 

3Iissouri  Dental  Association. 

Organized  in  St.  Louis,  October  31st,  1865.  First  officers : — H. 
J.  McKellops,  President;  G.  S.  Morse,  M.  McCoy,  Vice-Presidents; 
H,  Judd,  Recording  Secretary ;  J.  Payne,  Corresponding  Secretary ; 
A.  M.  Leslie,  Treasurer. 

Massachusetts  Central  Dental  Association. 

Organized  in  Worcester,  Massachusetts,  November  13th,  1865. 
First  officers  :— Seth  P.  Miller,  President;  A.  A.  Cook,  W.  N.  Snow, 
Vice-Presidents  ;  O.  C.  White,  Corresponding  Seci^etary  ;  J.  N.  Tour- 
tellotte,  Recording  Secretary ;  O.  F.  Harris,  Treasurer. 

Present  officers: — H.  F.  Bishop,  President;  S.  P.  Martin,  A.  A. 
Howland,  Vice-Presidents;  Geo.  F.  Harwood,  Secretary;  J.  F. 
Adams,  Treasurer  ;  C.  W.  Estabrook,  John  McGregory,  S.  W.  Cook, 
Executive  Committee. 

Lebanon  Valley  Dental  Association. 

Organized  in  Reading,  Pennsylvania,  January  1st,  1866.  First 
officers  : — W.  K.  Brenizer,  Chairman;  S.  H.  Guilford,  Secretary. 

Newark  Dental  Association. 

Organized  in  Newark,  New  Jersey,  June  27th,  1866.  First  officers : 
— Wm.  G.  Lord,  President;  J.  B.  Da  Camara,  Jr.,  Vice-President ; 
G.  F.  J.  Colburn,  Secretary;  R.  J.  Reed,  Treasurer. 

Ohio  State  Dental  Society. 

Organized  in  Columbus,  Ohio,  in  June,  1866.  First  officers : — 
Geo.  Watt,  President;  G.  W.  Keely,  B.  F.  Robinson,  Vice-Presi- 
dents; A.  W.  Maxwell,  Corresponding  Secretary;  H.  A.  Smith, 
Recording  Secretary. 


DENTAL   ASSOCIATIONS.  169 

Present  officers  :—C.  R.  Taft,  President;  J.  C.  Whinery,  A.  F. 
Brown,  Mce- Presidents  ;  A.  F.  Eniniino:er,  Corresponding  Secretart/ ; 
H.  L.  Ambler,  Recording  Secrctarij;  G.  W.  Keely,  Treasurer;  J. 
Taft  (President),  H.  A.  Smith,  F.  H.  Rehwinkel,  C.  R.  Butler,  W. 
P.  Horton  (Secretary),  Board  of  Examiners.  This  board  issues  cer- 
tificates of  qualification,  under  the  State  law,  to  practice  dentistry. 

Old  Colony  Dental  Association. 

Organized  in  Middleborough,  Massachusetts,  August  15th,  1866. 
First  officers : — J).  S.  Dickerman,  President;  George  R.  AVhitney, 
Recording  Secretary;  Loring  W.  Puffer,  Corresponding  Secretary; 
Julius  Thompson,  Treasurer  and  Librarian. 

Present  officers: — AVilliam  E.  Williams,  President;  Charles  G. 
Davis,  Julius  Thompson,  Vice-Presidents ;  Loring  W.  Puffer,  Secre- 
tary and  Treasurer. 

North  Carolina  Dental  Association. 

Organized  in  Greensborough,  North  Carolina,  September  5th, 
1866.  First  officers : — B.  F.  Arrington,  President;  R.  P.  Bessent, 
J.  W.  Hunter,  Vice-Presidents ;  R.  D.  Fleming,  Recording  Secre- 
tary; V.  E.  Turner,  Corresponding  Secretary;  M.  R.  Banner, 
Treasurer. 

Maine  Dental  Society. 

Organized  in  Brunswick,  Maine,  September  18th,  1866.  First 
officers: — E.  Bacon,  President;  Wm.  Randall,  Vice-President; 
Thomas  Fillebrown,  Recording  Secretary;  A.  K.  Gilmore,  Corre- 
sponding Secretary. 

Present  officers: — C.  P.  Sawyer,  President;  D.  W.  Merrill,  Vice- 
President;  G.  W.  Stoddard,  Secretary;  J.  W.  Curtis,  Treasurer; 
Thomas  Fillebrown,  Librarian. 

An  incorporated  society.     Meetings  serai-annual. 

Hudson  River  Association  of  Dental  Surgeons. 

Organized  in  Poughkeepsie,  New  York,  April  25th,  1867,  First 
officers :— E.  D.  Fuller,  President ;  W.  A.  Palmer,  Geo.  S.  Allan, 
Vice-Presidents;  L.  S.  Straw,  Recording  Secretary  ;  T.  W.  Du  Bois, 
Corresponding  Secretary  ;  T.  C.  Royce,  Treasurer. 


170  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 


Pou(j]iheepsie  Dental  Association. 

Organized  in  Poughkeepsie,  New  York,  June  17th,  1867.  First 
officers: — James  H.  Mann,  President;  Chas.  L.  Houghton,  Vice- 
Fresident;  H.  F.  Clark,  Secretary;  J.  A.  Jillson,  Treasurer. 


Harris  Dental  Association  of  Lancaster,  Pennsylvania. 

Organized  in  Lancaster,  June  21st,  1867.  First  officers: — Jno. 
McCalla,  President;  J.  W.  Derr,  Vice-President;  AV.  N.  Amer, 
Secretary ;  E.  K.  Young,  Treasurer. 


Tennessee  Dental  Association. 

Organized  in  Nashville,  July  26th,  1867.  First  officers  :— W.  H. 
Morgan,  President;  J.  B.  Wasson,  J.  C.  Ross,  Vice-Presidents;  W. 
T.  Arrington,  Recording  Secretary;  R.  'R\x^'s,q\,  Corresponding  Sec- 
retary; Alex.  Hartman,  Treasurer. 


Northern  Iowa  Dental  Association. 

Organized  in  Dyersville,  Iowa,  September  17th,  1867.  First 
officers: — A.  B.  Mason,  President;  E.  L.  Clark,  Vice-President; 
E.  Noyes,  Corresponding  Secretary ;  D.  H.  Gill,  Recording  Secre- 
tary;  C.  Poor,  Treasurer. 


New  Yorh  Odontological  Society. 

Incorporated  1867.  Fii*st  officers: — C.  E.  Francis,  President; 
W.  B.  Hurd,  Vice-President;  Thos.  Burgh,  Recording  Secretary; 
W.  C.  Home,  Corresponding  Secretary ;  Geo.  H.  Perine,  Treasurer; 
Wm.  Carr,  Librarian;  A.  L.  Northrop,  W.  B.  Hurd,  Wm.  C. 
Home,  Executive  Committee. 

Present  officers: — A.  L.  Northrop,  D.D.S.,  President;  Benjamin 
Lord,  W.  A.  Bronson,  M.D.,  Vice-Presidents;  Wm.  Carr,  M.D., 
Corresponding  Secretary;  AVm.  JarvMC,  Jr.,  Recording  Secretary; 
Chas.  ]\Iiller,  Treasurer;  W.  E.  Hoag,  Librarian;  C.  E.  Francis, 
Chas.  D.  Cook,  Executive  Committee.     Meetings  monthly. 


DENTAL   ASSOCIATIONS.  171 


American  Academy  of  Dental  Science. 

Organized  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  October  19th,  18G7.  First 
officers:— E.  T.  Wilson,  M.D.,  President;  D.  M.  Parker,  M.D., 
Vice-President ;  E.  N.  Harris,  D.D.S.,  Secretary;  J.  L.  Williams, 
M.D.,  Treasurer;  John  Clough,  M.D.,  Librarian;  E.  G.  Tucker, 
M.D.,  D.  M.  Parker,  M.D.,  J.  L.  Williams,  M.D.,  Censors. 

Present  officers:— D.  M.  Parker,  M.D.,  President;  E.  G.  Tucker, 
M.D.,  Vice-President ;  W.  L.  Tucker,  D.]M.D.,  Recording  Secretary  ; 
E.  N.  Harris,  D.D.S.,  Corresponding  Secretary ;  L.  D.  Shepard, 
D.D.S.,  Treasurer ;  John  Clough,  M.D.,  Librarian;  J.  L.  Williams, 
M.D.,  W.  W.  Codman,  M.D.,  Geo.  T.  Moifatt,  M.D.,  Censors. 

Regular  meetings  first  Wednesday  of  each  month.  Annual  meet- 
ings in  Boston,  last  Monday  in  September. 

West  Jersey  Dental  Association. 

Organized  in  Trenton,  New  Jersey,  November  11th,  1867.  First 
officers: — Geo.  C.  Thrown,  Preside7it ;  Lewis  E.  Reading,  Vice-Presi- 
dent; John  B.  AVood,  Secretary ;  Thos.  S.  Stevens,  Treasurer. 

Charleston  Dental  Association. 

Organized  in  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  December,  1867.  First 
officers: — I.  B.Patrick,  President;  W.  S.  Brown,  Vice-President; 
Theodore  F.  Chupein,  Secretary  and  Treasurer. 

Lehigh  and  Delaware  Valley  Dental  Association. 

Organized  in  Allentown,  Pennsylvania,  in  1867.  First  officers  : — 
J.  P.  Barnes,  President;  E.  R.  Crane,  W.  E.  Buckman,  T7cc- 
P residents ;  J.  D.  Miller,  Recording  Secretary ;  W.  C.  Detweiler, 
Corresponding  Secretary ;  M.  E.  Martin,  Treasurer. 

Brooklyn  Dental  Society. 

Organized  in  Brooklyn,  New  York,  December  14th,  1867.  First 
officers: — H.  G.  Mirick,  President;  C.  D.  Cook,  Vice-President ; 
E.  L.  Childs,  Recording  Secretary;  William  Jarvic,  Jr.,  Coiresponding 
Secretary  ;    I.  C.  Monroe,  Treasurer. 


172  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

Present  officers: — William  H.  Atkinson,  President;  A.  H.  Brock- 
way,  Mce-Pre.sident ;  C.l^.CvandeW,  Corresponding  Secretary ;  Wm. 
Fishbough,  Recording  Secretary ;  F.  W.  Dolbeare,  Treasurer ;  O. 
E.  Hill,  Librarian. 

Dental  Society  of  the  State  of  New  York. 

Organized  in  Albany,  June  30th,  1868,  under  the  New  York 
State  law.  First  officers  : — A.  Westcott,  M.D.,  President ;  Wm.  B. 
Hurd,  Vice-President ;  L.  W.  Rogers,  Secretary  ;  B.  T.  Whitney, 
Treasurer;  J.  G.  Ambler  (1st  Dist.),  Wm,  B.  Hurd  (2d  Dist.), 
Alexander  Nelson  (3d  Dist.),  Z.  Cotton  (4th  Dist.),  A.  Westcott  (5th 
Dist.),  R.  Walker  (6th  Dist.),  F.  French  (7th  Dist.),  R.  G.  Snow 
(8th  Dist.),  Board  of  Censors. 

Present  officers : — AV.  C.  Barrett,  Preside^it ;  L.  S.  Straw,  Mce- 
President ;  S.  A.  Freeman,  Secretary  ;  A.  C  Hawes,  Treasurer  ;  S. 
B.  Palmer,  Correspondent ;  N.  W.  Kingsley  (1st  Dist.),  C.  A.  Mar- 
vin (2d  Dist.),  S.  D.  French  (3d  Dist.),  C.  F.  Rich  (4th  Dist.),  S.  B. 
Pahiier  (5th  Dist.),  S.  H.  McCall  (6th  Dist.),  F.  French  (7th  Dist.), 
L.  F.  Harvey  (8th  Dist.),  Board  of  Censors. 

The  above  is  the  main  society,  and  has  auxiliaries  as  below.  Its 
regular  meetings  are  held  annually  at  Albany,  on  the  laat  Tuesday 
in  June.     Its  auxiliary  societies  are  as  follows  : 

First  District. 

Present  officers : — J.  S.  Latimer,  New  York  City,  President ;  J. 
B.  Littig,  M,ce- President ;  F.  M.  Odell,  Secretary;  Charles  Miller, 
Treasurer. 

Second  District. 

Present  officers: — C.  D.  Cook,  M.D.,  President;  J.  H.  Holly, 
Vice-President ;  M.  E.  Elraendorf,  Recording  Secretary ;  W.  S. 
Elliott,  D.D.S.,  Corresponding  Secretary ;  C.  H.  Biddle,  Treasurer; 
O.  E.  Hill,  M.D.S.,  Librarian. 

Third  District. 

Present  officers: — S.  E.  Welch,  Lansingburgh,  President;  W.  F. 
Winne,  Vice-President;  H.  A.  Hall,  Secretary;  L.  C.  Wheeler, 
Treasurer. 


< 


1>ENTAL   ASSOCIATIONS.  173 


Fourth  District. 


Present  officers: — E.  Doolittle,  Schuylerville,  President;  C.  H. 
Tilton/  Vice-President ;  C.  E.  Stacks,  Secretary ;  C.  F.  Rich,  Treas- 
urer. 

Fifth  District. 

Present  officers : — F.  D.  Nellis,  Syracuse,  President ;  H.  W. 
Tompkins,  Clayville,,  Vice-President;  John  S.  Marshall,  Syracuse, 
Secretary;  George  Elliott,  Syracuse,  Treasurer. 

Sixth  District. 

Present  officers: — F.  B.  Darby,  Elraira,  President;  F,  S,  Howe, 
Vice-President ;  G.  L.  Holden,  Secretary ;  S.  H.  McCall,  Treasurer. 

Seventh  District. 

Present  officers: — Frank  French,  Rochester,  President;  J.  Requa, 
Vice-President ;  J.  E.  Line,  Secretary;  F.  E.  Howard,  Treasurer. 

Eighth  District. 

Present  officers: — C.  W.  Stainton,  Buffiilo,  President;  G.  B.  Snow, 
Vice-President;  G.  C.  Daboll,  Secretary;  W.  A.  Parrows,  Treasurer. 

Cumberland  Valley  Dental  Society. 

Organized  in  Carlisle,  Pennsylvania,  October  16th,  1868.  First 
officers  : — J.  L.  Suesserott,  President ;  J.  AV.  Bender,  Vice-President ; 
Geo.  W.  Neidich,  Secretary;  J.  C.  Miller,  Treasurer. 

East  Tennessee  Dental  Association. 

Organized  in  Knoxville,  Tennessee,  October,  1868.  First  officers: 
— J.  Fouche,  President;  W.  H.  Cooke,  Recording  Secretary  and 
Treasurer;  S.  H.  Smith,  Cor rexponding  Secretary. 

Present  officers: — S.  M.  Protho,  President;  J.  D.  Morgan,  T7ee- 
President ;  S.  B.  Cooke,  Recording  Secretary  and  Treasurer  ;  W.  H. 
Cooke,  Corresponding  Secretary. 


174  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAN   DENTISTRY, 


Pennsylvania  State  Dental  Society. 

Organized  in  Pliiladelphia,  December  2d,  1868.  First  officers  : — 
A.  B.  Robbins,  President;  J.  L.  Suesserott,  Samuel  Welchens,  Vice- 
Presidents;  Geo.  ^V.'NekWch,  Recording  Secretary;  Thos.  C.  Stell- 
wagen,  Corresponding  Secretary;  Jno.  McCalla,  Treasurer;  J.  H. 
McQuillen,  James  Truman,  H.  Gerhart,  J.  G.  Templeton,  J.  W. 
Moffitt,  Censors. 

Present  officers: — E.  T.  Darby,  President;  J.  C.  Green,  C.  S. 
Beck,  Vice-Presidents;  R.  H.  ]\Ioffitt,  Recording  Secretary;  S.  H. 
Guilford,  Assistant  Secretary;  M.  H.  Webb,  Corresponding  Secretary; 
S.  Welchens,  Treamrer;  T.  C.  Stellwagen,  G.  W.  Klump,  C.  N. 
Peirce,  M.  H.  Webb,  J.  G.  Templeton,  J.  C.  Green,  Censors. 

Bucks  County  Dental  Association. 

Organized  in  Doylestown,  Pennsylvania,  June  7tli,  1869.  First 
officers: — H.  P.  Yerkes,  President;  G.  W.  Adams,  Secretary;  J. 
W.  Scarborough,  Treasurer;  J.  S.  Rhoads,  F.  Swartzlander,  J. 
Hayhurst,  Executive  Committee. 

Texas  State  Dental  Association.  ■ 

Organized  in  Houston,  Texas,  June  16th,  1869.  First  officers: — 
M.  M.  Michau,  President;  L.  E.  Edmonson,  Vice-President;  P.  T. 
Clark,  Corresponding  Secretary;  T.  Robinson,  Recording  Secretary; 
II.  G.  McNeil,  Treasurer;  J.  D.  Collier,  Librarian. 

Southern  States  Dental  Association. 

Organized  in  Atlanta,  Georgia,  July  28th,  1869.  First  officers: — 
W.  T.  Arrington,  President;  W.Reynolds,  L.  Augspath,  J.  G.  Mc- 
Auley,  Vice-Presidents;  F,  J.  S.  Gorgas,  Corresponding  Secretary; 
J.  G.  Angell,  Recording  Secretary ;  W.  G.  Redman,  Treasurer;  W. 
H.  Morgan,  J.  S.  Knapp,  J.  R.  Walker,  W.  S.  Chandler,  Albert 
Hape,  Executive  Committee. 

San  Francisco  Dental  Association. 
Organized    in    San    Francisco,  California,  September  1st,   1869. 


I 


j 


DENTAL    ASSOCIATIONS.  175 

First  officers :— C.  C.  Knowles,  President;  H.  E.  Knox,  Vice- 
Premdent;  W.  J.  Younger,  Corresponding  Secretary;  J.  Ball,  Record- 
ing Secretary ;  F.  A.  Park,  Treasurer. 

Alabama  State  Dental  Society. 

Organized  in  Montgomery,  October  6th,  1869.    First  officers: — J. 

G.  McAuley,  President;   S.  Rambo,  Evans,    Vice-Presidents; 

Reese,  Secretary. 

Georgia  State  Dental  Society. 

Organized  about  1869.  Present  officers: — Geo.  W.  McElhany, 
President;  M.  S.  Jobson,  John  H.  Coyle,  Vice-Premdents ;  Charles 
C.  Allen,  Corresponding  Secretary;  D.  Smith,  Recording  Secretary. 


South  Carolina  State  Dental  Association. 

Organized  about  1870.  Present  officers: — J.  W.  Norwood,  Presi- 
dent; J.  R.  Thompson,  D.  L.  Boozer,  Vice-Presidents  ;  H.  D.  Wilson, 
Corresponding  Secretary ;  G.  F.  S.  Wright,  Recording  Secretary ; 
T.  W.  Bouchier,  Treasurer. 

California  State  Dental  Society. 

Organized  in  San  Francisco,  June  29th,  1870.  First  officers: — C. 
C  Knowles,  President;  J.  J.  Menefee,  S.  W.  Dennis,  H.  H.  Pierson, 
Vice-Presidents ;  Wm.  J.  Younger,  Corresponding  Secretary ;  H.  J. 
Plomteaux,  Recording  Secretary  ;  J.  N.  Myers,  Assistant  Recording 
Secreiary;  F.  A.  Park,  Treasurer;  J.  Ball,  Libranan. 


Wisconsin  State  Dental  Society. 

Organized  in  Milwaukee,  September  28th,  1870.  Incorporated, 
March  24th,  1871.  First  officers  :—D.  W.  Perkins,  President;  E. 
N.  Clark,  Arthur  Holbrook,  Vice-Presidents;  C.  C.  Chittenden,  Re- 
cording Secretary;  Edgar  Palmer,  Corresponding  Secretary;  J.  C. 
Lukes,  Treasurer. 

Present  officers  : — C.  W.  Barnes,  President;  H.  Enos,  Vice-Presi- 
dent; M.  T.  Moore,  Secretary ;  J.  C.  Lukes,  Treasurer. 


176  HISTORV   OF    AMERICAN   DENTISTRY. 


New  Jersey  State  Dental  Society. 

Organized  in  Trenton,  October  25th,  1870.  First  officers: — J. 
Hay  hurst,  President;  C.  S.  Stockton,  Vice-President;  E.  F.  Hanks, 
Secretary;  L.  E.  Reading,  Treasurer. 

Present  officers : — C.  S.  Stockton,  President;  J.  W.  Scarborough, 
Vice-President;  Charles  A.  Meeker,  Secretary;  William  H.  Dibble, 
Treasurer. 

Kansas  State  Dental  Society. 

Organized  May  2d,  1871.  First  officers: — J,  B.  Wheeler,  Presi- 
dent; W.  H.  Marvin,  Vice-President;  J.  D.  Patterson,  Pecording 
Secretary;  E.  C.  Fuller,  Corresponding  Secretary ;  J.  H.  Sawyer, 
Treasurer. 


Dental  Alumni  Association  of  Harvard  University.   . 

Organized  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  January  25th,  1872.  First 
officers:— E.  Page,  D.M.D.,  President;  J.  T.  Codman,  D.M.D., 
Vice-President;  C.  Wilson,  D.M.D.,  Secretary;  T.  O.  Loveland, 
D.M.D.,  Treasurer. 

Present  officers: — Chas.  A.  Brackett,  D.M.D.,  President;  Charles 
Wilson,  D.M.D.,  Vice-President ;  T.  O.  Loveland,  D.M.D. ,  Secre- 
tary; Edward  Page,  D.M.D.,  Treasurer. 


Oregon  State  Dental  Society. 

Organized  in  Portland,  March  29th,  1873.  First  officers :— J.  H. 
Hatch,  President;  L.  S.  Skiff,  Vice-President ;  A^'m.  F.  Thompson, 
Corresponding  Secretary;  J.  R.  Cardwell,  Recording  Secretary ;  J. 
Welsh,  Treasurer. 


Texas  State  Dental  Association. 

Organized  in  Austin,  September  17th,  1873.  First  officers: — AV. 
G.  Kingsbury,  President;  Wm.  Stiles,  L.  Quinby,  Vice-Presidents ; 
A.  A.  Beville,  Pecording  Secretary ;  R.  p].  Grant,  Treasurer ;  C.  E. 
Wise,  Corresponding  Secretary. 


t 


% 


DENTAL   ASSOCIATIONS.  177 


Pittsburgh  Dental  Association. 

Organized  in  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  November  10th,  1874.  First  offi- 
cers: — M.  E.  Gillespie,  P/r^vV/cnf;  James  S.King,  Vice-President; 
H.  \V.  Arthur,  Secretary ;  J.  G.  Templeton,  Treasurer;  J.  G.  Tem- 
pleton,  W.  F.  Fundenberg,  Gale  French,  Censors;  Calvin  King,  J. 
G.  Templeton,  H.  W.  Arthur,  Executive  Committee. 

3Iississippi  State  Dental  Association. 

Organized  in  Vicksburg,  April  21st,  1875.  Officers : — J.  D. 
"MWes, President ;  A.  H.  Hilzheim,  O.  B.  Hilzheira,  Vice-Presidents; 
A.  Riser,  Secretary ;  J.  B.  Askew,  Treasurer ;  J.  D.  Miles,  J.  B. 
Askew,  A.  H.  Hilzheim,  Executive  Committee. 

North  Carolina  State  Dental  Association. 

Organized  in  Beaufort,  August  11th,  1875.  Officers: — B  .F.  Ar- 
rington.  President;  V.  E.  Turner,  J.  W.  Hunter,  Vice-Presidents ; 
E.  L.  Hunter,  Secretary ;  S.  S.  Everitt,  Treasure)'. 

Alumni  Association  of  the  Baltimore  College  of  Dental  Surgery. 

Organized  in  Baltimore,  March  6th,  1876.  Officers  : — S.  J.  Cock- 
erille.  President;  T.  A.  La  Far,  S.  D.  French,  Vice-Presidents ;  T. 
H.  Davy,  Recording  Secretary ;  Wm.  B.  Wise,  Corresponding  Secre- 
tary ;  Wm.  H.  Hoopes,  Treasurer  ;  F.  J.  S.  Gorgas,  Jas.  H.  Harris, 
W.  H.  Hoopes,  Executive  Committee. 

Minnesota  Stcde  Deidal  Association. 

Present  officers: — F.  A.  Williamson,  President;  P.  S.  Calkins, 
Vice-President ;  W.  F.  Lewis,  Secretary ;  J.  H.  Bryant,  Treasurer. 

Central  Pennsylvania  Dental  Association. 

Organized  about  1874.  Present  officers : — E.  J.  Greene,  Presi- 
dent; J.  C.  M.  Hamilton,  Vice-President;  W.  B.  Miller,  Recording 
Secretary  ;  H.  W.  Buchanan,  Coi' responding  Secretary  ;  J,  W.  Isen- 
berg,  Treasurer. 

1» 


178  IIISTORV    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 


Dental  Society  of  the  State  of  Maryland  and  District  of  Columbia. 

Present  officers: — R.  B.  Winder,  Presic/en^y  Geo.  S.  Fouke,  Vice- 
President;  E.  P.  Keech,  Corresponding  Secretary ;  R.  Finley  Hunt, 
Recording  Secretary ;  J.  Curtiss  Smith,  Reporting  Secretary ;  B.  F. 
Coy,  Treasurer. 

Alumni  Association  of  the  Maryland  Dental  College. 


In  the  foregoing  list  will  be  seen  a  marked  feature, — the  recur- 
rence of  the  same  society  name  in  several  places:  witness  the  various 
New  York  State  societies.  These  are  not  repetitions  of  the  same 
organizations.  Succeeding  similar  appellations  may  be  inferred  to 
be  consequent  on  the  dissolution  of  previous  associations  of  the  sanie 
name. 


\ 


Present  officers: — Fred.  A.  Levy,  President;  John  J.  Williams, 
Vice-President;  Chas.  E.  Busey,  Corresponding  Secretary ;  Richard 
M.  Johnson,  Recording  Secretary ;  Cyrus  M.  Gingrich,  Treasurer.  3 


I 


I 


DENTAL  SCHOOLS  AND   COLLEGES. 


The  origination  of  institutions  for  the  teaching  of  dentistry  was 
due  to  the  persistent  and  determined  efforts  of  a  very  few  men  of 
markedly  liberal  views  in  that  profession.  The  great  necessity  for 
some  radical  change  in  the  method  of  imparting  dental  instruction 
was  sufficiently  evident  to  any  observing  and  impartial  mind  long 
before  1840.  The  practice  of  taking  private  students  was  then 
everywhere  in  vogue,  and  little  could  be  said  in  its  disfavor  so  long 
ps  the  studentship  was  properly  conducted,  and  the  teacher  imparted 
to  his  disciple  that  which  he  himself  knew,  on  the  subjects  proposed 
to  be  taught;  and  danger  in  this  direction  could  not  be  apprehended 
when  certain  men  of  established  position  and  integrity  were  the 
teachers.  But  such,  unfortunately,  was  not  always  the  case.  The 
best  men  charged  extremely  high  prices  for  a  studentship.  Dr. 
Eleazer  Family  offered,  when  in  England,  to  receive  students,  and  to 
render  them  fit  for  practice  in  London  for  one  thousand,  in  other 
large  cities  for  seven  hundred  and  fifty,  and  in  the  provinces  for  five 
hundred  dolhirs.  The  latter  sum  was  "commonly  asked  for  tiie 
office-fee  of  a  student."*  Such  a  charge  was,  of  itself,  amply  suf- 
ficient to  debar  the  great  mijority  of  seekers  after  dental  learning 
from  obtaining  it  at  the  hands  of  such  as  were  capable  of  teaching 
them  correctly ;  and  they,  consequently,  were  either  forced  to  enter 
the  profession  without  knowledge  of  the  science,  or  to  receive  what 
they  did  learn  from  much  inferior  practitioners  whose  charges  were 
not  so  great.  As  an  instance  of  the  latter  class,  there  may  be  men- 
tioned the  case  of  a  dentist  (!)  who  offered  fully  to  instruct  students 
in  dental  practice  in  four  weeks  at  a  cliarge  of  thirty  dollars.f 

Such  a  state  of  affiiirs  was  naturally  viewed  with  regret  by  su  -11 
as  were  above  the  professional  jealousies  and   secrecy   in   method- 


*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  2d  Series,  vol.  ii.  p.  98. 
f  Dental  News  Letter,  vol.  iv.  p.  21. 


179 


180  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

which  then  almost  universally  prevailed.  These  strove  to  induce  a 
ohaiii:;c  in  that  state ;  and  the  quickest  and  most  surely  effectual  of 
any  method  to  i)roduce  the  desired  result  appeared,  and  proved,  to  be 
the  establishment  of  a  school  for  dental  instruction.  From  the  above 
(and  other)  causes  came  the 

Baltimore  College  of  Dental  Surgery, 

the  first  institution  of  its  kind  in  the  world.  It  received  its  charter 
in  1839,  and  commenced  its  first  session  in  the  following  year.  The 
first  officers  and  Faculty  were  as  follows  : 

Horace  H.  Hayden,  M.D.,  President,  Principles  of  Dental  Science. 

Chapin  A.  Harris,  INI.D.,  Dean,  Theory  and  Practice  of  Dental 
Surgery,  Theory  and  Practice  of  Dental  3Iechanism. 

Thomas  E.  Bond,  ]M.D.,  Dental  Pathology  and  Therapeutics. 

H.  Willis  Baxley,  M.D.,  Anatomy  and  Physiology. 

The  graduates  of  the  class  of  1841  were  only  two,  Robert  Arthur 
and  R.  Covington  Mackall,  of  Maryland.  These  gentlemen  were, 
therefore,  the  first  in  the  world  to  receive  the  degree  of  "D.D.S." 

During  succeeding  years  the  chairs  were  numerically  increased. 

In  1841  was  added  that  of  Practical  Anatomy,  Washington  R. 
Handv,  M.D.,  being  the  first  professor.  In  1844  came  that  of 
Operative  Dentistry,  with  Joseph  B.  Savier,  D.D.S.,  as  its  first  in- 
cumbent. In  1846  was  instituted  that  of  Mechaniccd  Dentistry, 
taught  by  Cyrenius  O.  Cone,  M.D.,  D.D.S.  .  In  1849  the  chair  of 
Chemistry  was  first  filled  by  Philip  H.  Austen,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  and 
in  1856  came  the  professorship  of  Microscopical  and  Comparative 
Anatomy,  filled  at  first  by  Christopher  Johnston,  M.D. 

The  present  Faculty  is  as  follows  : 

Ferdinand  J.  S.  Gorgas,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  Dental  Siirgeiy  and  Thera- 
peutical, and  Dean. 

Henry  Reginald  Noel,  M.D.,  Physiology  and  Pathology. 

E.  Lloyd  Howard,  M.D.,  Chemistry. 

James  IT.  Harris,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  Clinical  Dentistry. 

James  B.  Ilodgkin,  D.D.S.,  Dental  Mechanism  and  3Ietallurgy. 

Thomas  S.  Latimer,  M.D.,  Anatomy. 

Judson  B.  Wood,  D.D.S.,  Demonstraior  of  Operative  Dentistry. 

B.  M.  Wilkerson,  M.D.,  T>.\}. '6.,  Demonstrator  of  Mechanical  Den- 
tistry. 

John  C.  Uhler,  D.D.S.,  Edwin  F.  Wayman,  D.D.S.,  and  Frank 
S.  Lewis,  D.D.S.,  Assistant  Demonstrators. 


I 


DENTAL   SCHOOLS   AND   COLLEGES.  181 

"Each  candidate  for  graduation  ....  must  prepare  a  written  thesis 
describing  operations  upon  the  teeth,  ....  show  specimens  of  opera- 
tions upon  the  natural  organs,  and  present  an  approved  specimen  of 
dental  mechanism ;  also,  he  must  have  attended  two  full  courses  of 
lectures  in  this  college.  The  following,  however,  will  be  accepted  as 
equivalent  to  one  course  in  this  college  : — One  course  in  any  reputable 
dental  college ;  attendance  and  graduation  in  a  reputable  medical  col- 
lege prior  to  matriculation  at  this  college,  and  one  year's  dental 
pupilage;  five  years'  dental  practice,  including  regular  pupilage;  an 
acceptable  examination  on  entering  college,  before  the  full  Faculty  in 
session,  on  anatomy,  physiology,  inorganic  chemistry,  and  practical 
dentistry,  including  a  regular  course  of  pupilage  and  several  years' 
practice."* 

The  total  number  of  regular  graduates  to  date,  is  613,  of  which  were 
graduated  in  1841,  2;  1842,  3;  1843,  6;  1844,  6;  1845,  5;  1846, 
11 ;  1847,  10 ;  1848,  15 ;  1849,  16  ;  1850,  11 ;  1851,  18  ;  1852,  14  ; 
1853,22;  1854,18;  1855,27;  1856,18;  1857,20;  1858,19; 
1859,  20;  1860,  39;  1861,  29;  1862,  10;  1863,  9;  1864,  10;  1865, 
11 ;  1866,  10  ;  1867,  31 ;  1868,  26  ;  1869,  26  ;  1870,  24 ;  1871,  27  ; 
1872,  18;  1873,  27;  1874,  19;  1875,  17;  1876,  19.  The  college 
has  also  awarded  one  hundred  and  fifty -one  honorary  degrees  (D.D.S.) 
from  1841  to  1871,  since  which  last  date  it  has  granted  none  such. 
Total  degrees  conferred  to  date,  764. 

It  will  be  readily  believed  that  the  establishment  of  this  school 
was  violently  opposed  in  many  quarters,  and  it  was  confidently  pre- 
dicted that  it  would  be  sliort-lived.  However,  it  lived  down  opposi- 
tion, and  still  stands  among  the  foremost  of  similar  institutions.  The 
museum  in  connection  with  it  is  worthy  of  note  as  very  valuable  and 
important. 

The  Ohio  Dental  College 

was  chartered  in  1845,  and  commenced  its  first  session  in  November 
of  the  same  year  in  Cincinnati,  where  it  has  since  been  located.  The 
first  Faculty  was  composed  of  the  following-named  gentlemen  : 

Jesse  W.  Cook,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  Dental  Anatomy  and  Physiology,  and 
Dean. 

Melancthon  Rogers,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  Dental  Pathology  and  Thera- 
peutics. 

James  Taylor,  D.D.S.,  Practical  Dentistry  and  Pharmacy. 

*  College  "Triennial  Catulogue." 


182  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

Jesse  P.  Judkins,  M.D.,  Demonstrator  of  Anatomy. 

In  1(S46  a  chair  of  C/icml^fri/  was  added  to  the  above,  and  was 
rtlled  by  Elijah  Slack,  M.I).  In  1847,  Wm.  INI.  Hnnter  was  ap- 
pointed Demonstrator  of  Mechanical  Dentisti-y.  In  1848,  Charles  H, 
Raymond,  ]\r.D.,  was  made  Lecturer  on  Chemistry.  In  1850  tiie 
chair  of  Mcclianical  Dentidry  was  created,  and  A.  M,  Leslie,  D.D.S., 
appointed  to  it.  This  chair  was  changed,  in  1851,  to  that  of  Opera- 
tive and  Mechanical  Dentidry,  with  John  Allen,  D.D.S.,  as  its  incum- 
bent. The  chair  of  Practical  Dentistry  and  Pharmacy  was  also  then 
changed  to  that  of  Principles  and  Practice  of  Dental  Surgery,  and 
occupied  by  James  Taylor,  D.D.S.  In  1853  the  chair  of  Operative 
and  Mechanical  Dentistry  was  divided  into  two, —  Operative  Dentistry, 
filled  by  John  Allen,  D.D.S.,  and  Mechanical  Dentistry,  to  which  H. 
R.  Smith,  D.D.S.,  was  appointed.  In  1855  the  chair  of  Principles 
and  Practice  of  Dental  Surgery  was  changed  to  that  of  Institutes  of 
Dental  Science,  and  its  duties  assigned  to  James  Taylor,  D.D.S.  A 
chair  of  Chemistry  and  Metallurgy  was  now  created,  and  Geo.  Watt, 
M.D.,  ap])ointed  to  it. 

In  1850  the  Faculty  passed  a  resolution  that  a  committee  of  five 
for  the  examination,  in  connection  with  the  Faculty,  of  candidates 
for  graduation,  should  be  selected  annually,  two  from  the  medical  and 
three  from  the  dental  profession.  This  was  in  force  until  1860,  when 
it  was  rescinded.  During  the  winter  of  1861—62,  no  session  was  held. 
The  present  Faculty  is  constituted  as  follows: 

James  Taylor,  J\I.D.,  D.D.S.,  Emeritus  Institutes  of  Dental  Science. 

Wm.  Clendenin,  M.D.,  Anatomy. 

J.  L.  Cilley,  M.D.,  Physiology  and  Histology,  and  Practical 
Anatomy. 

F.  lirunning,  ]M.D.,  Pathology  and  Therapeutics. 

J.  Taft,  D.D.S.,  Operative  Dentistry,  Hygiene,  and  Microscopy,  and 
Dean. 

J.  S.  Cassidy,  D.D.S.,  Chemistry. 

J.  I.  Taylor,  D.D.S.,  H.  M.  Reid,  D.D.S.,  Clinical  Dentistry. 

W.  Van  Antwerp,  D.D.S.,  Mechanical  Dentistry. 

"A  candidate  for  graduation  must  have  had  two  full  years  of 
pupilage,  part  of  which,  at  least,  should  be  with  a  reputable  dental 
practitioner,  inclusive  of  two  complete  courses  of  lectures  in  a  dental 
college.  A  graduate  of  a  respectable  medical  college,  who  has  had 
one  year's  pui)ihige  under  a  reputable  dentist,  or  a  student  having  had 
a  regular  pupilage,  and  passed  a  satisfactory  examination  ui)on 
anatomy,  elementary  chemistry,  and    mechanical  dentistry,  may  be 


DENTAL  SCHOOLS   AND   COLLEGES.  183 

admitted  to  an  examination  for  the  degree  of  D.D.S.  after  attending 
one  full  course  of  lectures.  .  .  .  He  will  be  required  to  present  and 
defend  before  the  Facuhy  a  written  thesis  ujion  some  subject  pertain-' 
ing  to  dental  science.  He  must  also  deposit  in  the  college  cabinet 
an  artificial  denture  of  his  own  workmanship  made  in  the  college."* 
The  total  number  of  regular  graduates  of  this  college,  to  date,  is 
262,  apportioned  as  follows:  ciass  of  1846,  4;  1847,  5;  '1848,  7; 
1849,8;  1850,6;  1851,4;  1852,12;  1853,14;  1854,10;  1855, 
12;  1856,10;  1857,5;  1858,5;  1859,12;  1860,4;  1861,5; 
1863,3;  1864,  5;  1865,  6;  1866,  18;  1867,  13;  1868,  9;  1869, 
9;  1870,  10;  1871,  9;  1872,  12  (one  female) ;  1873,  16;  1874,  7; 
1875,  6;  1876,  16. 

The  Transylvania  School  of  Dental  Surgery 

was  chartered  in  Kentucky  in  1850,  and  commenced  its  first  session 
the  same  year,  with  the  following  Faculty : 

J.  B.  Stout,  ]\I.D.,  Institutes  of  Dental  Seience. 

John  B.  Lindsay,  D.D.S.,  Principles  and  Practice  of  Dental  Sur- 
fjery. 

B.  J.  Dudley,  D.D.S.,  Operative  and  3Iechanical  Dentistry. 

James  S.  Drane,  M.D.,  Special  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  Pa- 
thology. 

G.  W.  Evans,  Dental  Chemistry,  Hygiene,  and  Therapeutics. 

Whether  this  school  ever  completed  more  than  one  session  does  not 
appear.  The  above  notice  f  is  all  that  has  been  found  with  regard 
to  it. 

The  New  York  College  of  Dental  Surgery, 

of  Syracuse,  was  chartered  in  INIarch,  1852.  Its  first  Faculty  con- 
sisted of — 

A.  AVestcottj  M.D.,  Theory  and  Practice  of  Dental  Swgei-y  and 
Technology. 

A.  B.  Shipman,  M.D.,  Anatomy  and  General  Principles  of  Surgery. 

Ehrick  Family,  INI.D.,  D.D.S.,  Institutes  of  Dentistry,  Dental  Hy- 
giene, and  Compar<dive  Dental  Anatomy. 

Corydon  L.  Ford,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  3Iicroscopic  Anato)ny,  Physiology, 
and  Pathology. 

*  College  Announcement,  1874. 

f  American  Journal  of  Denial  Science,  2d  Series,  vol.  i.  p.  107. 


184  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY.  ' 

R.  F.  Stevens,  ^I.D.,  Chcmistri/,  Makria  Medica,  and  Therapeutics. 

William  Dalrymple,  D.D.S.,  Donomtrator  of  Operative  and  Me- 
chanical Dentistry. 

L.  G.  Bartlett,  Assistant  Demonstrator. 

John  B.  White,  M.D.,  Demonstrator  of  Anatomy. 

It  is  quite  possible  that,  had  this  school  continued  in  existence,  it 
would  lu\,ve  been  among  the  foremost  of  dental  colleges.  But,  un- 
fortunately, the  building  in  which  it  was  located  was  destroyed  by 
fire  in  1855,  and  its  a})paratus,  museum,  and  records  were  consumed. 
The  college,  after  this,  did  not  continue. 

The  Philadelphia  College  of  Dental  Surgery 

(first)  was  chartered  in  May,  1850. 

Previous  to  this  date,  five  of  the  members  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Association  of  Dental  Surgeons  (shortly  after  the  formation  of  that 
Society,  in  1845),  attempted  to  procure  the  passage  of  a  bill  through 
the  Legislature  of  that  State,  incorporating  a  dental  college,  but  were 
unsuccessful.  A  short  time  after  the  Hon.  Jesse  R.  Burden  had 
procured  the  charter  under  which  the  college  was  eventually  organ- 
ized, the  Pennsylvania  Association  again  appointed  a  committee  to 
repeat  the  effort  formerly  made  to  procure  a  charter,  they  having  no 
knowledge  of  Mr.  Burden's  previous  success.  They  subsequently 
allowed  their  own  ])etition  to  drop,  and,  having  come  to  an  agree- 
ment with  Mr.  Burden,  nominated  the  following  Faculty,  and  began 
the  first  session  in  November,  1852: 

J.  D.  White,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  Anatomy  and  Physiology. 

Ely  Parry,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  Chemistry,  Materia  Medica,  and  Special 
Therapeutics. 

Robert  Arthur,  D.D.S.,  Principles  of  Dental  Surgery. 

Elisha  Townsend,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  Operative  Dentistry,  and  Dean. 

T.  L.  Buckingham,  M.D.,  Mechanical  Dentistry. 

D.  B.  Whipple,  M.D.,  Demonstrator  of  Surgical  and  Mechanical 
Dentistry. 

This  college  completed  only  four  sessions,  during  which  time  there 
were  63  regular  graduates,  as  follows:  1853,  7;  1854,  19;  1855, 
15;  1856,  22.  In  1853  there  were  conferred  22  honorary  degrees; 
in  1854,  7;  in  1855,  1;  and  in  1856,  2;  or  32  in  all. 

The  single  honorary  degree  noted  for  1855  was  conferred  by  the 
trustees  upon  a  student  who  was  considered  by  the  Faculty  to  be  in- 
competent to  obtain  a  regular  degree ;  and  the  two  honorary  degrees 


DENTAL   SCHOOLS   AND   COLLEGES.  185 

of  1856  were  also  given  by  the  trustees,  this  time  in  direct  opposition 
to  the  expressed  wishes  of  tlie  Faculty.  These  latter  thereupon  with- 
drew from  their  chairs,  and  the  first  Philadelphia  College  ceased  to 
exist. 

The  Pennsylvania  College  of  Dental  Surgery 

was  chartered  in  April,  1856.  This  institution  was  a  consequence  of 
the  downfall  of  the  old  Philadelphia  College,  through  the  efforts  of 
the  members  of  the  disbanded  Faculty  of  that  school.  Its  first  session 
commenced  in  November,  1856,  the  following  being  the  Faculty : 

Elisha  Townsend,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  Operative  Dental  Surgery. 

Ely  Parry,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  Chanistry,  Materia  Medica,  and  Thera- 
peutics. 

Robert  Arthur,  D.D.S.,  Principles  of  Dental  Surgery,  and  Dean. 

J.  F.  B.  Flagg,  Anatomy  and  Physiology. 

T.  L.  Buckingham,  M.D.,  3Iechanical  Dentistry. 

Louis  Jack,  D.D.S.,  Demonstrator  of  Operative  Dentistry. 

Wm.  Calvert,  D.D.S.,  Demonstrator  of  Ilechanical  Dentistry. 

The  present  Faculty  is  as  follows : 

T.  L.  Buckingham,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  Chemistry. 

E.  Wildman,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  Meclianical  Dentistry  and  Metcdlurgy. 

G.  T.  Barker,  D.D.S.,  Dental  Pathology  and  Therapeutics,  and 
Dean. 

James  Truman,  D.D.S.,  Dental  Histology  and  Operative  Dentistry. 

James  Tyson,  M.D.,  Physiology  and.  3Iicroscopic  Anatomy. 

J.  Ewing  Mears,  M.D.,  Anatomy  and  Surgery. 

A.  B.  Abell,  Jr.,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  Demonstrator  of  3Iechanical  Den- 
tistry. 

Charles  W.  Meloney,  D.D.S.,  Demonstrator  of  Operative  Dentistry. 

The  candidate  for  graduation  in  this  college  "  must  have  studied 
under  a  private  preceptor  at  least  two  years,  including  his  course  of 
instruction  at  the  college.  Attendance  on  two  full  courses  of  lectures, 
at  the  regular  or  winter  sessions  in  this  institution  will  be  required  ; 
but  satisfactory  evidence  of  having  attended  one  full  course  in  any 
respectable  dental  or  medical  school  will  be  considered  equivalent  to 
the  first  course  of  lectures  in  this  college.  Also,  satisfactory  evidence 
of  having  been  in  practice  five  years,  inclusive  of  the  term  of  pupil- 
age, will  be  considered  equivalent  to  the  fir-st  course  of  lectures."* 
The  student  is  also  required  to  prepare  a  dental  thesis,  to  treat  thor- 

*  College  Announcement  for  1875-6. 


186  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAX    DENTISTRY. 

oughly  some  patient  requiring  all  the  usual  dental  operations,  to  take 
up  and  complete  at  least  one  artificial  case,  and  prepare  and  deposit 
in  the  college  collection  a  specimen  case.  All  the  operations  must  be 
performed  at  the  college  building. 

The  number  of  regular  graduates,  and  honorary  and  other  degrees 
conferred,  to  date,  by  this  college  is  as  follows : 

Regular  graduates,— 1857,  13;   1858,  15;  1859,25;  1860,21 
1861,36;    1862,19;    1863,20;    1864,  17;    1865,29;    1866,33 
1867,26;    1868,31;    1869,24;    1870,38;    1871,38;    1872,26 
1873,  28  ;  1874,  34  ;  1875,  27  ;  1876,  31.     Total  regular  graduates, 
531. 

Honorary  degrees,— 1858,  1 ;  1863,  2;  1865,  5;  1872,  2.  Total 
honorary  degrees,  10. 

Degrees  "on  time  and  examination,"— 1866,  3;  1867,  23;  1868, 
2;  1869,  4;  1870,  3;  1872,  1.  Total  degrees  "on  time  and  exam- 
ination," 36.     Total  degrees  conferred,  577. 

The  Philadelphia  Dental  College 

was  chartered  and  began  its  first  session  in  1863.  Its  first  Faculty 
was  as  follows : 

J.  H.  McQuillen,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  Anatomy,  Physiology  and  Hy- 
giene, and  Dean. 

J.  Foster  Flagg,  D.D.S.,  Institutes  of  Dentistry. 

C.  A.  Kingsbury,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  Dental  Physiology  and  Operative 
Dentistry. 

Thomas  Wardwell,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  Jleehanical  Dentistry  and  Metal- 
lurgy. 

Henry  Morton,  A.M.,  Chemistry. 

Geo.  W.  Ellis,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  Demonstrator  of  Operative  Dentistry. 

Wm.  Gorges,  D.D.S.,  Demonstrator  of  Mechanical  Dentistry. 

The  present  Faculty  is  constituted  by — 

J.  H.  McQuillen,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  Physiology,  and  Dean. 

Harrison  Allen,  M.D.,  Anatomy  and  Surgery. 

D.  D.  Smith,  D.D.S.,  Mechanical  Dentistry  and  Metallurgy. 
S.  B.  Howell,  M.D.,  Chemistry  and  Materia  Medica. 

T.  C.  Stellwagen,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  Dental  Pathology  and  Operaiivt 
Dcnti.stry. 

Edward  L.  Hewitt,  D.D.S.,  Demonstrcdor  of  Operative  Dentistry. 
Alonzo  Boice,  D.D.S.,  Demonstrator  of  Mechatiieal  Dentistry. 
Wm.  Williamson,  D.D.S.,  Assistant  Demonstrator. 


DEXTAI.    SCHOOLS    AND    COLLEGES.  187 

The  candidate  for  graduation  in  this  college  "must  have  had  two 
years'  private  tuition  [for  which  attendance  upon  the  Spring  and  Fall 
courses  will  be  regarded  as  equivalent],  and  attended  two  full  Winter 
courses  of  lectures  in  a  respectable  dental  or  medical  college,  one  of 
which  shall  have  been  in  this  institution ;  but  certified  evidence  of 
having  had  five  years'  practice  in  dentistry,  inclusive  of  pupilage, 
will  be  regarded  as  equivalent  to  one  course  of  lectures.  He  must 
present  to  the  Dean  a  thesis  on  some  subject  relating  to  dental  theory 
or  practice  ;  demonstrate  to  the  Professors  of  operative  and  mechani- 
cal dentistry  his  'practical  acquirements  in  these  departments  ;  and 
deposit  a  specimen  of  mechanical  dentistry  in  the  museum  of  the  in- 
stitution, made  by  himself  in  the  college  Laboratory.  .  .  .  The 
Faculty  give  formal  notice  to  the  profession  that  after  the  session 
1876-7  (closing  February  28th,  1877)  five  years'  practice  will  not  be 
regarded  as  an  equivalent  for  one  course  of  lectures,  and  that  attend- 
ance upon  two  full  winter  courses  of  lectures  will  be  required  of  all 
candidates  for  graduation."* 

The  regular  graduates  of  this  college  to  date,  are  numerically  as 
follows:  In  1864,6;  1865,  15;  1866,  16;  1867,  30;  1868,  20; 
1869,  25  ;  1870,  41 ;  1871,  36  ;  1872,  32  ;  1873,  49  ;  1874,  30 ;  1875, 
41;  1876,  44.     Total,  385. 

The  New  York  College  of  Dentistry 

was  chartered  in  1865,  and  began  its  first  session  in  November,  1866. 
The  Faculty  at  that  time  was  as  follows: 

Eleazer  Family,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  Mneritus  Institutes  of  Dentistry. 

William  H.  Dwindle,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  Dental  Science  and  Operative 
Dentistry. 

Norman  W.  Kingsley,  Dental  Art  and  3£echanism,  and  Dean. 

J.  Smith  Dodge,  Jr.,  IM.D.,  D.D.S.,  Dental  Pathology  and  Thera- 
peutics. 

Faneuil  D.  Weisse,  i\I.D.,  Descriptive  and  Comparative  Anatomy. 

Rufus  King  Browne,  M.D.,  Experimental  Physiology  and  Micro- 
scopy. 

Charles  A.  Seely,  A.M.,  Chemistry  and  Metallurgy. 

D.  H.  Goodwillic,  ]\I.D.,  D.D.S.,  Demonstrator  of  Operative  Den- 
tistry. 

R.  M.  Streeter,  Demonstrator  of  3Iechanical  Dentistry. 

Alex.  W.  Stein,  M.D.,  Demonstrator  of  Anatomy. 


*  College  Announcement,  1874. 


188  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

The  present  Fiioulty  is  as  follows: 

Fiuieuil  I).  Wei.sse,  M.D.,  Regional  Anatomy  and  General  Pathol- 
ogy- 

Frank  Abbott,  M.D.,  Operative  Dentistry  and  Oral  Surgery,  and 

Dean. 

Alex.^V'.  Stein,  M.D.,  Hiiifology,  ViHceral  Anatomy,  and  PJiy&iology. 

F.  Le  Roy  S.itterlce,  ]M.D.,  Ph.D.,  Chemistry,  Materia  Ilediea,  and 
Therapeutics. 

C.  A.  ]\Iarvin,  D.D.S.,  Mechanieal  Dentistry. 
William  H.  Allen,  Clinical  O/jerative  Dentistry. 
John  Allen,  D.D.S.,  Clinical  Mechanical  Dentistry. 
William  B.  Hard,  D.D.S.,  Clinical  Operative  Dentistry. 
John  T.  Metcalf,  Clinical  Operative  Dentistry. 

Wm.  T.  Laroche,  D.D.S.,  Clinical  Operative  Dentistry. 
J.  Bond  Litti<>:,  D.D.S.,  Clinical  3Iechanical  Dentistry. 

D.  ^y.  Williamson,  D.D.S.,  Demonstrator  of  Operative  Dentistry. 
A.  Rust  Cuyler,  D.D.S.,  Demonstrator  of  Mechanical  Dentistry. 

S.  Frank  Johnson,  D.D.S.,  Geo.  M.  Eddy,  D.D.S.,  Assistant  Dem- 
onstrators. 

C.  P.  Kreizer,  M.D.,  Assistant  in  Chemistry,  Materia  3Iedica,  and 
Therapeutics. 

The  requisites  for  graduation,  as  given  in  the  College  Announee- 
ment  for  1875,  were  as  loHows:  "Students  shall  be  required  to  have 
spent  two  full  years  in  the  study  and  practice  of  dentistry,  inclusive 
of  attendance  on  two  full  sessions  of  lectures  in  a  recognized  dental 
collejre,  one  of  which  shall  have  been  in  this  institution,  before  re- 
ceiving  their  diploma.  [Satisfactory  evidence  of  having  had  five 
years'  practice  in  dentistry,  ....  inclusive  of  pupilage,  will,  after 
one  course  of  lectures  in  this  college,  entitle  the  candidate  to  an  ex- 
amination for  graduation.]  The  candidate  for  graduation  nuist  de- 
posit a  specimen  of  mechanical  dentistry  in  the  museum  of  the  college, 
made  by  himself  in  the  institution,  and  pass  satisfactorily  a  written 
and  oral  examination  by  the  Faculty,  and  a  practical  examination 
before  the  professors  of  Operative  and  Mechanical  Dentistry.  A 
graduate  of  medicine  shall  be  accredited  one  course  of  lectures." 

That  part  of  the  above  included  in  brackets  is  now  abrogated,  in 
consequence  of  the  following  action  of  the  Faculty,  taken  April  22d, 
1874:  "  Resolved,  That,  in  the  judgment  of  the  Faculty,  the  time  is 
rapidly  a})proaching  when  all  candidates  for  the  degree  of  D.D.S. 
shall  be  required  to  attend  two  full  courses  of  lectures  before  exami- 
nation.    It  is  therefore  determined  to  continue  the  above  rule  (re- 


DENTAL   SCHOOLS    AND   COLLEGES.  189 

specting  practitioners  of  five  years)  for  two  years  only  from  this 
time,"  etc.  The  remainder  of  the  requirements  noted  above  consti- 
tute those  now  in  force. 

The  number  of  graduates  of  this  college, to  date,  is  as  follows:  In 
1867,  9;  1868,  9;  1869,  12;  1870,  8;  1871,  8;  1872,  12  (one  fe- 
male); 1873,  10;  1874,  9;  1875,  16;  1876,  27.  Total  graduates, 
120. 

This  college  is  empowered  to  confer  two  degrees, — that  of  D.D.S. 
and  that  of  F.C.D.  (Fellow  of  the  College  of  Dentistry).  The  last 
has  been  conferred  only  four  times,  and  constitutes  the  honorary 
degree.     Thus  this  school  has  conferred,  in  all,  124  degrees. 

There  is,  also,  a  "  Faculty  prize,"  consisting  of  a  comjrlete  set  of 
dental  instruments,  to  be  awarded  to  the  graduate  who  passes  the  best 
examination,  written  and  oral,  and  presents  the  best  piece  of  artificial 
work.  This  prize  was  founded  in  1870,  and  has  been  awarded  to 
seven  graduates. 

The  Missouri  Dental  College 

was  founded  in  1866,  its  location  being  in  St.  Louis.  The  first  Faculty 
consisted  of  Drs.  H.  Judd,  H.  E.  Peebles,  W.  H.  Fames,  J.  T.  Hodg- 
son, A.  Litton,  C.  W.  Sfevens,  F.  W.  White,  and  E.  H.  Gregory. 

The  present  Faculty  is  as  follows: 

W.  H.  Fames,  D.D.S.,  Institutes  of  Dental  Science,  and  Dean. 

J.  J.  McDowell,  M.D.,  General  Descriptive  and  Surgical  Anatomy. 

A.  Litton,  M.D.,  Chemist/y  and  Pharmacy. 

C.  Baumgarten,  M.D.,  Physiology  and  3Iedical  .Jurisprudence. 

J.  S.  B.  Alleyne,  M.D.,  Materia  Medica  and  Therapeutics. 

E.  H.  Gregory,  ]\LD.,  Principles  and  Practice  of  Surgery,  and 
Clin  iced  Surgery. 

Isaiah  Forbes,  D.D.S.,  Surgical  and  Operative  Dentistry. 

M.  A.  Bartleson,  D.D.S.,  Mechanical  Dentistry. 

Homer  Judd,  INI.D.,  D.D.S.,  Lecturer  on  Histology  and  Pathology. 

H.  PI.  Mudd,  M.D.,  Demonstrator  of  Ancdomy. 

R.  H.  Mace,  D.D.S.,  Demonstrcdor  of  Operative  Dentistry. 

H.  H.  Keith,  D.D.S.,  Demonstrator  of  Mechanical  Dentistry. 

The  requisites  for  graduation  in  this  school  comprehend, — that  the 
candidate  must  have  been  engaged  in  the  study  of  dentistry  for  two 
years,  course  included;  that  he  shall  have  attended  two  full  courses 
in  this  school, — for  one  of  which,  however,  *' attendance  on  a  regular 
course  in  some  other  respectable  and  generally  accredited  dental 
school"  will  be-decmed  an  equivalent;  and  that  he  "undergo  a  satis- 


190  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

factory  examination  on  all  the  branches  taught  in  this  college,  and 
write  an  acceptable  thesis  in  the  English,  I^atin,  French,  or  German 
language,  on  some  subject  connected  with  dentistry."* 

The  regular  graduates  of  this  college,  to  date,  are  numbered  as 
follows:  In  1867,  12;  1868,  2;  1869,  12;  1870,  4;  1871,  7;  1872, 
6;  1873,5;  1874,  7;  1875,  6;  1876,  4.     Total,  65. 

■  The  New  Orleans  Dental  College 

was  chartered  March  1st,  1861,  and  commenced  its  first  regular  session 
on  the  25th  of  November  of  the  same  year.  Its  first  Faculty  was 
as  follows: 

John  S.  Clarke,  D.D.S.,  Denial  Theory  and  Practice,  and  Dean. 

James  S.  Knapp,  D.D.S.,  Operative  Dental  Surgery. 

George  J.  Friedrichs,  D.D.S.,  Mechanical  Dentistry. 

N.  B.  Benedict,  ]M.D.,  Anatomy  and  Physiology. 

Sanford  S.  Riddle,  INI.D.,  Chemistry  and  Metidlurgy. 

N.  B,  Benedict,  M.D.,  Materia  Medica  and  Special  Therapeutics. 

A.  F.  McLain,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  Demonstrator  of  Operative  Den- 
tistry. 

W.  S.  Chandler,  D.D.S.,  Demonstrator  of  Mechanical  Dentistry. 

The  present  Faculty  is  as  follows: 

Wm.  S.  Chandler,  D.D.S.,  Operative  Dental  Surgery. 

James  S.  Knapp,  D.D.S.,  Theory  and  Practice. 

Andrew  F.  McLain,  ]M,D.,  D.D.S.,  Institutes  of  Jfedicine  and 
Dentistry,  and  Special  Therapeutics,  and  Dean. 

Chas.  E.  Kells,  D.D.S.,  Science  of  Dental  Mechanism. 

Alfred  W.  Perry,  M.D.,  Chemistry. 

John  G.  Angell,  D.D.S.,  Operative  Dental  Surgery. 

Frederick  Loeber,  M.D.,  Anatomy  and  Physiology. 

Andrew  F.  McLain,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  Dental  Materia  3Iedica. 

]\[artin  Viet,  D.D.S.,  Demonstrator  of  Clinical  Dentistry. 

Candidates  for  gradu  ition  in  this  college  are  required  to  attend  two 
full  courses  of  lectures,  the  last  of  which  must  be  in  this  school, 
"exclusive  of  the  usual  two  years'  office  puj)ilagc."  Graduates  in 
medicine,  or  dentists  of  five  years'  respectable  actual  practice,  need 
attend  only  the  last  course.  The  Faculty  reserves  to  itself  the  right 
to  "cancel  diplomas  to  graduates  of  this  college  who  are  guilty  of  un- 


*  College  Announcement,  1876. 


DENTAL   SCHOOLS   AND   COLLEGES.  191 

professional  conduct,  charlatanism,  or  any  illicit  practices  calculated  to 
bring  discredit  upon  the  dental  profession."* 

A  numerical  account  of  the  graduates  of  this  college  is  as  follows : 
In  1868,  4  regular,  5  honorary;  1869,  9  regular;  1870,  5  regular, 
17  honorary;  1871,  5  regular,  5  honorary;  1872,  11  regular,  4 
honorary;  1873,  3  regular,  2  honorary;  1874,  4  regular,  2  honor- 
ary; 1875,  1  regular;  1876,  1  regular.  Total,  43  regular,  and  35 
honorary  degrees,!  or  78  total. 

The  Dental  School  of  Harvard  University 

(Boston)  was  founded  in  1867.     Its  first  Faculty  was  as  follows  : 
Thomas  Hill,  M.D.,  President. 
Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  M.D.,  Anatomy. 
Henry  James  Bigelow,  M.D.,  Surgery. 
John  Bacon,  M.D.,  Chemistry. 
Nathan  C.  Keej),  M.D.,  Mechanical  Dentistry. 
Thomas  B.  Hitchcock,  M.D.,  Dental  Pathology  and  Therapeutics. 
George  T.  Moffatt,  M.D.,  Operative  Dentistry. 
Luther  D.  Shepard,  D.D.S.,  Adjunct  in  Operative  Dentistry. 
Nathaniel  W.  Hawes,  Demonstrator  of  Operative  Dentistry. 
Charles  B.  Porter,  Demonstrator  of  Anatomy.   ■ 
Samuel  F.  Horn,  D.M.D.,  Demonstrator  of  Jlechanical  Dentistry. 
The  present  Faculty  is  as  follows : 
Charles  W.  Eliot,  LL.D.,  President. 

Thomas  H,  Chandler,  D.M.D.,  Mechanical  Dentistry,  and  Dean, 
Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  M.D.,  Anatomy. 
Henry  J.  Bigelow,  M.D.,  Surgery. 

,  Dental  Pathology  and  Therapeidics, 

George  T.  Moffatt,  M.D.,  D.ISI.D.,  Opercdive  Dentistry. 

Luther  D.  Shepard,  D.D.S.,  Adjunct  in  Operative  Dentistry. 

Nathaniel  AV.  Hawes,  Assistant  in  Operative  Dentistry. 

Henry  F.  Bowditch,  M.D.,  Assistant  in  Physiology. 

Charles  B.  Porter,  JNI.D.,  Demonstrator  of  Practical  Ancdomy. 

Edward  S.  Wood,  M.D.,  Assistant  in  Chemistry. 

Charles  A.  Brackett,  D.M.D.,  Instructor  in  Dental  Tlierapeutics. 

*  College  Announcement,  1874. 

f  This  school  has  issued  three  classes  of  honorary  degrees  ;  "  Doctor  of  Dental 
Surgery"  (31  conferred);  *' Ad  eundeni"  (1  conferred);  "Fellow  of  the  College 
of  Dentistry"  (3  conferred). 


192  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAN   DENTISTRY. 

William  Herbert  Rollins,  D.M.D.,  Instructor  in  Dental  Pathology. 

Charles  Wilson,  D.M.D.,  Demonstrator  in  Charge. 

George  F.  Grant,  D.M.D.,  Demonstrator  of  Mechanical  Dentistry. 

The  scheme  of  instruction  and  the  necessary  qualifications  for 
graduation  in  this  school  were  originally  generally  similar  to  those 
of  other  dental  schools.  The  latter  were,  at  first,  that  the  candidate 
"shall  have  pursued  his  professional  studies  three  years  under  com- 
petent instructors,  and  attended  two  full  courses  in  this  institution, 
except  that  a  certificate  of  attendance  upon  one  course  of  lectures  in 
any  respectable  dental  or  medical  college  may  be  considered  a  sub- 
stitute for  the  first  course;  provided  such  candidate  maintain  a 
thesis,"*  etc. 

The  scheme  of  instruction,  however,  has  been  latterly  changed,  and 
is  now  as  given  below  : 

"From  and  after  September  28th,  1876,  instruction  will  be  given 
in  the  Harvard  Dental  School  by  lectures,  recitations,  clinical  teach- 
ing, and  practical  exercises,  uniformly  distributed  throughout  the 
academic  year,  and  the  distinction  of  winter  and  summer  sessions 
will  thereafter  be  abolished.  The  year  will  begin  on  the  Thursday  fol- 
lowing the  last  Wednesday  in  September,  and  end  on  the  last  Wed- 
nesday in  June.  It  will  be  divided  into  equal  terms,  with  a  recess 
of  one  week  between  them.  .  .  .  The  course  of  instruction  will  be 
progressive,  extending  over  two  years.  .  .  .  Every  candidate  for 
the  degree  ....  must  give  evidence  of  having  studied  medicine  or 
dentistry  three  full  years  ;  he  must  have  sjieut  at  least  one  continuous 
year  at  this  school,  have  presented  a  satisfactory  thesis,  and  have 
passed  all  the  required  examinations.  The  Faculty  recomraeud  those 
who  propose  to  take  the  degree  to  spend  the  whole  of  the  required 
term  of  three  years  of  study  in  the  school.  But  those  who  wish  to 
spend  but  two  of  the  three  years  in  the  school  are  earnestly  advised 
to  pass  their  first  year  of  study,  before  entering,  under  the  direction 
of  a  competent  private  instructor."  f 

This  school  does  not  give  the  ordinary  degree  of  "  Doctor  of 
Dental  Surgery."  Its  degree  is  "  Dentarice  Medicines  Doctor''  (D. 
M.D.),  "  Doctor  of  Dental  Medicine." 

Its  graduates,  to  date,  are  numbered  as  follows :  In  1860,  5  ;  1870, 
12;  1871,  6;  1872,  15;  1873,  5;  1874,  8;  1875,  5;  1876,  7.  Total, 
63. 


*  College  Announcement,  1875. 
t  Ibid.,  1875-6. 


DENTAL  SCHOOLS   AND   COLLEGES.  VJo 


The  Boston  Dental  College 

was  founded  in  June,  1868,  and  began  its  first  regular  session  in  Sep- 
tember of  the  same  year.     Its  first  Faculty  was  constituted  thus : 

Wm.  H.  Atkinson,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  Hygiene  and  Dental  Jurispru- 
dence. 

Ambrose  Lawrence,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  Institutes  of  Dentistry. 

W.  S.  ]\Iiller,  D.D.S.,  Adjunct,  Institutes  of  Dentistry. 

I.  J.  Wetherbee,  D.D.S.,  Dental  Science  and  Operative  Dentisti'y. 

C.  G.  Davis,  D.D.S.,  Adjunct,  Dental  Science  and  Operative  Den- 
tistry. 

S.  J.  McDougall,  M.D.,  Dental  Art  and  3Iechanism. 

H.  F.  Bishop,  D.D.S.,  Adjunct,  Dental  Art  and  Mechanism. 

R.  King  Browne,  M.D.,  Anatomy  and  Physiology. 

J.  P.  Ordway,  M.D.,  Adjunct,  Anatomy  and  Physiology. 

L.  R.  Sheldon,  M.D.,  Pathology  and  Therapeutics. 

J.  A.  Follett,  M.D.,  Principles  and  Practice  of  Surgery,  and  Dean. 

F.  W.  Clark,  S.B.,  Chemistry  and.  Metallurgy. 

G.  M.  Pease,  jSI.D.,  Demonstrator  of  Anatomy. 
The  present  Faculty  is  as  follows : 

Isaac  J.  Wetherbee,  D.D.S.,  Dental  Science  and  Operative  Dentistry. 

Nicholas  N.  Noyes,  D.D.S.,  MccJianical  Deidistry  and  Metallurgy. 

Charles  H.  Spring,  M.D.,  Anatomy  and  Physiology. 

Joshua  B.  Tread  well,  M.D.,  Principles  and  Practice  of  Surgery. 

Elisha  Chenery,  M.D.,  Pathology  and  Therapeutics,  and  Dean. 

,  Chemistry  and  Physics. 

Robert  R.  Andrews,  D.D.S.,  Demonstrator  of  Microscopical  Anat- 
omy. 

Josiah  W.  Ball,  D.D.S. ;  Fred.  A.  Locke,  D.D.S.,  Demonstrators 
of  Operative  Dentistry. 

Charles  PI.  Osgood,  D.D.S.;  Frederick  F.  Gage,  D.D.S.,  Demon- 
strators of  3Iechanical  Dentistry. 

The  candidate  for  graduation  in  this. institution  "must  have  pur- 
sued his  professional  studies  three  years  under  a  competent  instructor 
and  have  attended  two  full  courses  of  lectures  in  this  college.  \ 
certificate  of  attendance  upon  one  course  of  lectures  in  any  other 
reputable  dental  or  medical  college,  or  five  years  of  reputable  prac- 
tice, may  be  considered  a  substitute  for  the  first  course."* 

*  College  Announcement,  1874-5. 
14 


104  HISTORY    OF   AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

The  number  of  regular  graduates  of  this  college  is  as  follows:  In 
1869,  2;  1870,  23;  1871,  5;  1872,  8;  1873,  6;  1874,  12;  1875, 
12;  1876,  11.     Total,  to  date,  79. 

The  Maryland  Dental  College 

was  established  in  1873,  in  Baltimore.  Its  first  Faculty  and  the 
present  are  identical,  as  follows: 

Samuel  H.  Williams,  D.D.S.,  Emeritus  Institutes  of  Dentistry. 

Byron  F.  Coy,  D.D.S.,  Dental  Surgery. 

Henry  H.  Kcech,  jNI.D.,  D.D.S.,  Pathology  and  Therapeidics. 

M.  "Whilldin  Foster,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  Deiital  3Iechanism  and  Metal- 
lurgy. 

Edward  P.  Keech,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  Clinical  Dentistry  and  3Iateria 
Medica. 

Richard  B.  "Winder,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  Physiology  and  Hygiene,  and 
Dean. 

Samuel  M.  Field,  D.D.S.,  Physics  and  Chemistry. 

L.  INIcLane  Tiffany,  M.D.,  Anatomy. 

A.  P.  Gore,  D.D.S.,  Adjunct,  Clinical  Dentistry. 

C.  T.  Brockett,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  Demonstrator  of  Practical  Dentistry. 
H.  G.  Ulrich,  D.D.S. ;  C.  E.  Duck,  D.D.S.,  Demonstrators  of 
Practical  Dentistry. 

B.  W.  Barton,  INI.D.,  Demonstrator  of  Anatomy. 

This  college  requires  of  its  candidates  for  graduation  that  they 
shall  have  attended  two  full  courses  of  its  lectures;  except  that  either 
graduation  in  a  reputable  medical  college  and  one  year  dental  pupil- 
age,— one  year  in  any  reputable  dental  college, — five  years'  practice, 
including  regular  pupilage, — nor  an  acceptable  examination  on  enter- 
ing the  college  upon  anatomy,  physiology,  chemistry,  and  practical 
dentistry, — will  be  contsidered  as  equivalent  to  one  course  in  the  col- 
lege. It  is  also  announced  that  graduates  of  this  school  will  be  ac- 
cepted as  second-course  students  at  the  Washington  University  of 
Medicine,  and  at  the  Baltimore  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons. 

The  Dean  of  this  college.  Dr.  R.  B.  Winder,  was  elected,  in  1868, 
to  fill  a  chair  of  Dentistry  in  the  Baltimore  Special  Dispensary;  its 
Board  of  Physicians  declaring  that  "  Dentistry  should  hereafter  be 
considered  as  a  surgical  specialty  in  this  institution,  and  placed  upon 
the  same  footing  as  the  other  specialties."* 

*  Letter  of  the  Board  to  Dr.  Winder. 


I 


DENTAL  SCHOOLS   AND   COLLEGES.  195 

The  graduates  of  this  school  are  numbered  as  follows:    In  1874, 
10;  1875,  4;  1876,  10.     Total,  24. 


Tlie  Dental  College  of  the  University  of  Michigan 

was  instituted  in  1875,  its  first  session  commencing  in  October  of 
that  year.     Its  Faculty  is  as  follows: 

James  B.  Angell,  LL.D.,  President. 

Jonathan  Taft,  D.D.S.,  Principles  and  Practice  of  Operative  Den- 
tistry, and  Dean. 

John  A.  Watling,  D.D.S.,  Clinical  and  Mechanical  Dentistry. 

AValter  H.  Jackson,  Demonstrator. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  students  receive  instruction  in  Anatomy, 
Physiology,  Pathology,  Chemistry,  JIateria  3Iedica,  Therapeutics,  and 
Surgery  from  the  Professors  of  those  branches  in  the  "  Department 
of  Medicine  and  Surgery"  of  the  University. 

This  school  requires  of  its  students  certain  qualifications  for  ad- 
mission thereto ;  the  most  important  being,  graduation  from  "  some 
respectable  college,  academy,  or  high  school,"  or  matriculation  in  the 
University,  or  an  examination  "  as  to  his  previous  education  and  his 
fitness  for  entering  upon  and  ajipreciating  the  technical  study  of 
medicine."*  The  conditions  of  graduation  are,  that  "  He  must  de- 
vote three  years  to  the  study  of  his  profession,  in  connection  with  at- 
tendance upon  a  full  course  of  medical  lectures.  He  must  attend  two 
full  courses  of  lectures  in  the  dental  college,  or  one  course  elsewhere 
and  the  last  one  here.  .  .  .  He  must  sustain  an  examination  satis- 
factory to  the  Faculty  in  all  the  branches  taught.  A  graduate  of  the 
medical  college  may  enter  the  senior  class,  and  if  found  qualified  may 
graduate  after  two  years  have  been  devoted  to  the  study  of  dentistry. 
A  dentist  who  has  been  in  reputable  practice  for  four  years  may 
submit  to  an  examination,  and  if  approved  enter  the  senior  class."t 

As  the  term  of  this  college  is  two  years,  there  have  been,  thus  far, 
no  students  y-raduated  from  it. 

In  connection  with  the  University  of  California  there  is  established 
a  dental  school.  This  was  decided  upon  in  1873,  in  consequence  of 
action  taken  in  the  matter  by  the  California  State  Dental  Society, 
and  the  (.lepartment  was  afterward  established  ;  but  as  yet  no  lectures 
have  been  given. 

About  the  same  year,  also,  there  appeared  before  the  profession  the 

*  College  Announcement,  1875.  f  Ibid. 


196  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAN   DENTISTRY. 

so-called  "St.  Louis  Dental  College."  This  institution  appears  to 
have  had  no  real  existence  as  a  college,  and  held  no  sessions ;  but 
degrees  were  conferred  by  it, — it  is  said  simply  upon  payment  of  a 
sum  of  money.*  An  attempt  by  it  to  introduce  its  delegate  into  the 
American  Dental  Association  was  promptly  thwarted,  the  committee 
on  the  subject  declaring  that  "  the  St.  Louis  Dental  College  has  no 
existence  except  under  a  technicality  of  a  loose  and  dangerous  statute 
of  the  State  of  Missouri ;  that  it  has  never  attempted  to  fulfill  the 
spirit  of  even  this  bad  law,  by  instituting  lectures,  clinics,  or  any 
other  mode  of  teaching  dental  science,"!  The  "  St.  Louis  Dental 
College"  soon  came  to  an  end. 

To  sum  up:  There  have  been  founded  in  this  country  since  1840, 
no  less  than  fifteen  public  institutions  for  the  teaching  of  dentistry. 
Of  these,  twelve  are  now  in  existence.  The  whole  number  have 
granted  degrees  (as  nearly  as  has  been  possible  to  determine)  to 
2300  persons.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  only  one  of  the  fifteen 
schools  (the  Transylvania  School  of  Dental  Surgery,  Kentucky)  never 
attained  any  importance;  and  that  the  other  two  now  out  of  exist- 
ence (the  New  York  [Syracuse]  college,  and  the  first  Philadelphia 
college)  became  so  through  causes  entirely  apart  from  and  uncon- 
nected with  the  system  of  dental  instruction  pursued  by  them. 

*  Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  x.  p.  310. 

f  Transactions  of  the  American  Dental  Association  for  1867,  p.  13. 


DENTAL  LEGISLATION. 


Ix  the  earlier  days  of  American  dentistry,  although  there  existed 
even  a  greater  necessity  for  some  barrier  to  the  promiscuous  entrance 
into  the  profession  of  unqualified  persons  than  is  now  felt,  there  were 
insuperable  objections,  in  the  minds  of  even  reputable  and  competent 
practitioners,  to  any  application  for  legal  protection.  Chief  among 
these  stood  that  almost  universally  predominant  feeling  of  profes- 
sional jealousy  which  was  so  long  the  barrier  to  advancement  in 
dentistry  in  almost  every  direction.  To  appeal  to  public  guardian- 
shij)  was  to  display  their  modes  of  practice,  not  alone  to  the  public 
and  unprofessional  eye,  but  to  tlie  scrutiny  of,  and,  perchance,  adop- 
tion by,  the  professional  brotherhood.  Narrow  and  illiberal  as  such 
a  view  will  now  appear,  it  is  no  less  the  exact  one  taken  by  the  gen- 
eral practitioner  of  fifty  years  ago,  on  almost  any  question  connected 
with  his  practice.  Good  dentists  were  few  and  isolated,  and  easily 
commanded  upon  their  merits  all  the  practice  they  could  care  for ; 
and  they  consequently  contented  themselves  with  railing  at  such  den- 
tal operators  as  were,  or  as  they  conceived  to  be,  below  them  in  scien- 
tific or  j^ractical  status,  being  well  aware  that  they  were  secure  in  the 
position  they  had  gained  in  the  public  estimation,  and  caring  little 
for  aught  else.  It  will  be  remembered  that  we  refer  to  the  general 
practitioner,  and  do  not  include  some,  who,  from  the  earliest  dates, 
appear  to  have  been  entirely  free  from  such  ignoble  motives. 

There  was  another  fact  which  also  operated  strongly  against  any 
movement  of  the  better  class  of  dentists  toward  legislative  protection 
against  empiricism.  This  was,  that  the  majority  of  persons  practicing 
dentistry  in  this  country,  was,  in  those  times,  comjiosed  of  the  very 
class  against  which  any  such  enactment  would,  perforce,  have  been 
aimed.  This  class,  although  certainly  not  influential  in  individuality, 
was  yet  so  as  a  whole,  and  could  not  be  ignored — and  might,  possi- 
bly, not  have  been  overcome — in  any  contest  such  as  would  surely 

have  arisen  on  the  question  of  dental  legislation. 

107 


t 
i 

198  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAN   DENTISTRY.  ^ 

Upon  the  establishment  of  dental  periodicals  and  schools,  and  in 
consequence  of  the  growth  of  liberal  ideas  in  the  profession,  the  state 
of  affairs  in  dentistry  gradually  changed.  A  college  degree  and  an 
official  published  organ  gave  to  the  educated  dentist  of  1840  and  after- 
ward a  superiority  in  the  public  estimation  over  the  irregular  prac- 
titioner which  he  had  never  before  held,  and  enabled  him  to  concert 
and  coni])lcte  measures  such  as  would  have  been  exceedingly  difficult, 
if  not  imjK)ssible,  to  have  been  carried  out,  even  five  years  before. 

Curiously  enough,  the  first  State  to  pass  a  dental  enactment  in  this 
country  was  Alabama,  almost  the  ])oorest  in  skilled  dentists  at  the 
time  of  any  State  in  the  Union.  This  legislation  (probably  the  first 
ever  had  on  the  dental  specialty)  was  somewhat  anomalous,  placing 
the  keeping  of  dental  interests  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  general 
surgeon  and  physician.  The  old  and  now  well-known  objections  to 
such  a  course  operated  then  much  more  actively  than  they  do  at 
present.  Said  Dr.  Harris,*—"  The  insuperable  objection  to  commit- 
ting the  interests  of  dental  surgery  into  the  keeping  of  the  general 
surgeon  and  the  physician  is,  that  gentlemen  who  are  only  medically 
educated,  as  far  as  it  regards  dental  surgery  are  oftentimes  as  ignorant 
as  the  most  unlearned.  The  medical  colleges  have  never  taught  this 
branch  of  surgery  in  its  most  important  and  difficult  operations,  and 
hundreds  of  students  are  graduated  yearly  who  do  not  really  know 
how  to  extract  a  tooth  scientifically."  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  Dr. 
Harris,  in  conclusion  of  the  above  remarks,  outlined  almost  exactly 
the  })resent  system  of  associated  dentistry  more  than  thirty  years  ago. 
He  adds,  referring  to  the  Alabama  law, — "  Much  may  be  done,  even 
in  this  way,  but  the  true  remedy  lies  in  the  general  union  of  educated 
dentists  in  a  central  association,  aided  and  sustained  by  State  societies. 
Such,  acting  with  as  much  power  from  the  State  laws  as  surgeons  and 
physicians  have,  will  be  able  to  make  the  profession  honorable,  re- 
spectable, and  useful." 

The  act  of  Alabama  was  approved  December  31st,  1841.  It  was 
as  follows : 

ALABAMA. 

"  An  Ad  Recjulating  the  Practice  of  Dental  Surgery,  and  for  other 

•purposes. 

"  Section  1 .  Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representa- 
tives of  the  State  of  Alabama,  in  General  Assembly  convened.  That 

*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  1st  Series,  vol.  iii.  p.  291. 


DENTAL   LEGISLATION.  199 

from  and  after  the  first  Monday  in  December  next,  it  shall  be  the 
duty  of  each  of  the  medical  boards  of  this  State  to  examine  and 
license  applicants  to  practice  dental  surgery,  under  the  same  rules 
and  regulations,  and  subject  to  the  same  restrictions  as  those  who  ap- 
ply for  license  to  practice  medicine ;  and,  in  order  more  fully  to  carry 
this  act  into  effect,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  each  of  the  medical  boards, 
where  the  same  is  practicable,  to  add  to  their  body,  by  election,  a 
professional  dentist  having  the  requisite  qualifications,  which  dentist 
so  added  shall  constitute  a  part  of  the  board. 

"  Section  2.  And  be  it  further  enacted.  That  if  any  person  styling 
himself  as  dentist,  or  other  person,  shall  engage  in  the  practice  of 
dental  surgery  as  a  professional  business,  after  the  aforesaid  first 
Monday  in  December  next,  without  having  been  regularly  licensed 
60  to  do  by  one  of  the  medical  boards  of  this  State,  as  hereinbefore 
provided  for,  for  every  such  offense  shall  forfeit  and  pay  a  sum  not 
exceeding  fifty  dollars,  recoverable  before  any  court  having  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  same,  one-half  to  the  informer,  the  other  half  to  the 
county  where  suit  is  brought. 

"  Section  3.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  that  all  bonds,  notes,  or 
promissory  obligations,  or  assumpsits,  made  to  any  person  or  per- 
sons not  authorized  as  provided  for  in  this  act,  the  consideration  of 
which  shall  be  for  services  rendered  as  a  professional  dentist,  or  in 
the  line  of  professional  dentistry,  shall  be  utterly  void  and  of  no 
effect ;  Provided,  the  provisions  of  this  act  shall  not  be  so  construed 
as  to  prevent  persons  from  practicing  dental  surgery  who  have  a 
license  to  practice  surgery  and  medicine,  from  either  of  the  medical 
boards  of  this  State,  or  diploma  from  any  regularly  constituted  insti- 
tution in  the  United  States. 

"Section  4.  And  be  it  further  enacted.  That  hereafter  it  shall  be  the 
duty  of  all  practicing  physicians,  surgeons,  and  dentists,  to  have  their 
licenses  recorded  in  the  office  of  the  Clerk  of  the  County  Court  in 
which  they  may  reside,  and  the  certificate  of  the  clerk  shall  be  con- 
sidered as  good  evidence  in  any  court  of  the  right  of  any  individual 
having  a  diploma  or  license  to  practice  his  profession,  and  recover 
his  debts  for  the  same. 

"Section  5.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  That  all  laws,  and  parts  of 
laws,  contravening  the  provisions  of  this  act,  be  and  the  same  are 
hereby  repealed." 

What  success  the  above  enactment  met  with  during  the  long  time 
it  was  in  force  (it  is  believed,  to  the  opening  of  the  late  civil  war), 


200  HISTORY   OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

cannot  now  be  ascertained.  Its  effects  were,  probably,  more  in  the 
suppression  of  irregular  practitioners  than  in  the  elevation  of  the 
standard  of  professional  acquirements  in  dentistry.  The  latter,  in 
fact,  has  proved  an  exceedingly  difficult  operation,  through  legislative 
action,  in  later  days  and  with  the  most  approved  form  of  law ;  and 
groat  success  in  this  direction  cannot  be  exj)ccted  of  so  crude  a  statute, 
and  in  times  such  as  were  those  in  which  it  was  j)assed. 

The  newer  order  of  thought  and  ethics  introduced  by  and  with 
joiirnalism  and  educational  institutions  was  itself  so  powerful  an 
educator,  both  of  the  profession  and  the  public,  that  any  necessity 
for  legal  status  appears  to  have  been  small,  or  at  least  lightly  felt,  for 
many  years. 

Dentistry,  after  1840,  had  acquired  such  importance  and  generally 
accorded  scientific  standing  as  it  had  never  before  known.  The 
graduates  of  dental  colleges  multiplied,  and  the  class  of  good — or, 
at  least,  tolerable — dentists  became  almost  as  nearly  the  rule  as  it  had 
formerly  been  the  exception.  Under  these  circumstances  dentistry 
rested  for  a  jieriod  of  about  twenty-five  years. 

About  18(35,  there  arose  a  series  of  circumstances  certainly  not 
contemplated  by  those  who  have  been  affectionately  denominated  the 
"  fathers  of  American  dentistry."  This  subject  is  designed  to  be 
more  fully  treated  in  the  chapter  on  "Dental  Education,"  and  will 
not,  therefore,  be  further  alluded  to  here.  Suffice  it  to  say,  that  sat- 
isfactory sr(/*-government  in  dentistry  appeared  to  have,  at  that  time, 
fulfilled  its  possibilities;  and  the  profession  cast  about  for  some 
method  which  should  replace  it  to  a  better  end.  This  appears  to 
have  been  partially  effected,  at  least,  by  resort  to  the  original  method 
put  in  operation  by  Alabama,  twenty-five  years  before. 

Several  of  the  States,  notably  Kentucky,  Pennsylvania,  and  "New 
York,  attempted  to  procure  legislative  action  on  dentistry,  about 
1860-68.  Kentucky  failed  entirely;  and  her  State  Society  is  now 
organized  inulcr  a  special  act  of  incorporation.*  Pennsylvania  has 
finally  succeeded,  after  much  labor  and  several  rebuffs.  New  York 
Mas  the  first  after  Alabama  to  procure  a  special  legislative  enactment 
relative  to  dentistry. 

*  In  1867,  certain  prominent  dentists  of  that  State  undertook  the  passage  of 
tvn  act,  which  provided,  among  other  things,  that  it  sliould  be  iinhiwful  for  any 
but  holders  of  diplomas  of  dental  colleges,  or  certificates  of  an  examining  board, 
to  practice  dentistry  ;  and  instituting  fines  for  the  breaking  of  the  proposed  law, 
making  the  single  exception  to  the  above  that  the  act  should  not  "  prevent  phy- 
sicians and  surgeons  from  extracting  teeth."    See  Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  viii.  p.  6C4. 


DENTAL   LEGISLATION.  201 


NEW  YORK. 


So  far  have  been  developed  two  classes  of  such  laws.  The  act 
first  in  force  in  Alabama,  and  those  of  Ohio,  Xew  Jersey,  Georgia, 
and  Pennsylvania  may  be  denominated  "prohibitory"  laws;  that  is, 
they  seek,  by  stringent  provisions,  under  heavy  penalties,  to  forcefully 
prevent  the  practice  of  dentistry  by  any  except  regularly  authorized 
persons.  That  of  New  York  forms  a  class  by  itself,  its  object  being, 
in  the  language  of  its  founders,  to  "  seek  thorough  organization  and 
the  establishment  of  })roper  standards,  ....  without  the  enactment 
of  penalties  for  the  infringement  of  the  State  Society's  regulations, — 
a  law  which  seeks  rather  to  mould  public  opinion  than  to  repress  the 
unqualified, — which  endeavors  to  elevate  the  incompetent,  rather  than 
to  drive  him  from  practice."* 

The  nuiltiplication  of  dental  societies  in  this  State  proved  to  be 
the  first  indication  of  the  need  for  organized  professional  effort  there. 
An  entire  want  of  unanimity  of  opinion  or  organized  action  on  any 
matter  of  importance,  was  felt  to  be  a  great  obstacle  to  professional 
advancement ;  and  the  absence  of  any  standard  of  qualification  for 
admission  to  the  brotherhood  was  recognized  as  a  serious  evil,  which 
demanded  prompt  remedy.  It  was  said,  and  justly, — "  Law,  Medi- 
cine, and  Divinity  have  each  their  barriers  erected ;  having  passed 
which,  the  student  becomes  at  once  the  professional  brother,  but  out- 
side which  he  is,  in  no  case,  recognized  or  given  the  hand  of  fellow- 
ship. But  Dentistry  has  no  line  of  demarcation  by  which  to  separate 
the  competent  from  the  incompetent, — no  standard  of  qualifications, — 
and  no  clearly  defined  limits.  .  .  .  Law,  Medicine,  and  Divinity, 
themselves  in  possession  of  the  immunities  of  centuries,  are  distrust- 
ful of  the  profession  wliich  has  no  organized  existence  and  no  respon- 
sible head.  Any  man  may,  at  his  option,  become  a  dentist.  There 
is  no  obstruction  to  prevent  the  ingress  of  the  unworthy,  and  no  code 
of  ethics  such  as  will  prevent  fraternization  with  them."t 

Such  points  of  moment  as  these  could  not  fail  to  engage  the  serious 
consideration  of  the  best  jnen.  The  various  local  societies  began  to 
give  expression  to  their  ideas  of  reform  by  the  appointment  of  com- 
mittees to  agitate  the  subject  of  a  deliverance  from  the  evils  which 
beset  them.  The  Buffido  Dental  Society  finally  took  the  step  of  call- 
ing a  general  convention  of  State  practitioners;  and  the  result  was 


*  Mnnuscript  of  Dr.  Barrett  in  the  possession  of  the  author, 
f  Mss.  of  Dr.  Barrett. 


202  HISTORY   OF   A]^IERICAN   DENTISTRY. 

the  passage  of  the  following  act  in  the  Legislature,  which  was  signed 
by  the  Governor,  Ai)ril  7th,  18G8  : 

"An  Act  to  incorporate  dental  societies  for  the  purpose  of  Improving 
and  Regulating  the  Practice  of  Dentistry  in  this  State. 

"  The  People  of  the  State  of  New  York,  represented  in  Senate  and 
Assembly,  do  enact  as  follows  : 

'^Section  1.  It  shall  be  lawful  for  the  dentists  in  the  several  judi- 
cial districts  of  the  sn{)reme  court  of  this  State,  to  meet  together  at 
the  following  named  places,  to  wit:  In  district  number  one,  at  the 
Cooper  Institute  in  the  city  of  New  York;  district  number  two,  at 
the  City  Hall  in  the  city  of  Brooklyn;  district  number  three,  at  the 
Delavan  House  in  the  city  of  Albany;  district  number  four,  at  the 
Clarendon  Hotel,  Saratoga  Springs;  district  number  five,  at  the  Stan- 
vvix  Hall  Hotel,  in  the  village  of  Rome;  district  number  six,  at  the 
Lewis  House,  in  the  village  of  Binghamton;  district  number  seven, 
at  the  Canandaigua  Hotel,  in  the  village  of  Canandaigua;  district 
number  eight,  at  the  Medical  Hall,  in  the  city  of  Buffalo;  on  the 
first  Tuesday  of  June,  eighteen  hundred  and  sixty-eight,  at  two 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon  of  that  day,  and  such  dentists  so  convened  as 
aforesaid,  or  any  part  of  them,  not  less  than  fifteen  in  number,  shall 
proceed  to  the  choice  of  a  president,  vice-president,  secretary,  and 
treasurer,  who  shall  hold  their  offices  for  one  year,  and  until  others 
shall  be  chosen  in  their  places;  and  whenever  said  societies  shall  be 
organized  as  aforesaid,  they  are  hereby  constituted  bodies  corporate, 
in  fact  and  under  the  names  of  the  '  District  Dental  Society'  of  the 
respective  judicial  districts  where  they  shall  be  located;  provided 
always,  that  if  the  dentists  residing  in  any  district  shall  not  meet  and 
organize  themselv^es  as  aforesaid,  it  shall  be  lawful  for  them,  at  the 
call  of  fifteen  dentists  residing  in  such  district,  to  meet  at  such  other 
time  and  place  as  they  shall  designate;  and  their  proceedings  shall  be 
as  valid  as  if  such  meeting  had  been  at  the  time  before  specified. 

"Section  2.  Each  of  said  district  societies  when  organized  as  afore- 
said, shall  elect  eight  delegates,  who  shall  meet  at  the  Capitol,  iu 
the  city  of  Albany,  on  the  last  Tuesday  of  June,  eighteen  hundred 
and  sixty-eight,  and  proceed  to  organize  a  State  dental  society,  which 
shall  be  named  '  The  Dental  Society  of  the  State  of  New  York,' 
and,  being  met,  not  less  than  thirty-three  in  number,  shall  proceed 
to  elect,  and  shall  thereafter  annually  elect  a  president,  vice-j)resi- 
dent,  secretary,  and  treasurer,  who  shall  hold  their  offices  for  one 
year,  and   until  others   shall  be  chosen    in   their   places;   and  said 


I 


DENTAL   LEGISLATION.  203 

Society  sliall  be  a  body  corporate,  under  the  name  and  style  as 
aforesaid. 

"Section  3.  The  secretaries  of  each  of  the  district  societies  shall 
lodge,  in  the  county  clerk's  office  of  some  county  within  their  district, 
a  copy  of  all  the  proceedings  and  records  of  their  organization;  and 
it  shall  also  be  the  duty  of  the  secretary  of  the  State  Dental  Society, 
in  like  manner,  to  lodge,  in  the  office  of  the  Secretary  of  State,  a  copy 
of  its  records  and  proceedings  had  at  the  organization  thereof;  and 
the  said  county  clerks,  respeetively,  and  the  Secretary  of  State  shall 
file  the  same  in  their  respective  offices,  and  shall  receive  therefor  a 
fee  of  . 

"  Section  4.  At  the  first  meeting  of  said  State  Dental  Society,  the 
same  being  duly  organized  as  aforesaid,  the  delegation  from  each  dis- 
trict society  shall  be  divided  into  four  classes  of  two  delegates  each, 
who  shall  serve  one,  two,  three,  and  four  years  respectively,  and  until 
othei-s  shall  be  elected  in  their  places,  and  the  said  district  societies, 
at  each  annual  meeting  thereafter,  shall  choose  two  delegates  to  the 
State  Society,  to  serve  each  four  years,  and  fill  all  vacancies  in  their 
respective  delegations  that  may  have  occurred  by  death  or  otherwise. 

"Section  5.  Each  of  the  incorporated  dental  colleges  of  this  State 
may  annually  elect  two  delegates  to  the  State  Dental  Society,  who 
shall  be  entitled  to  all  the  privileges,  and  subject  to  the  same  rules 
and  regulations  as  other  delegates, 

"  Section  6.  The  said  State  Dental  Society  may  elect  permanent 
members  of  said  Society  from  among  eminent  dentists  residing  in  this 
State,  but  not  to  exceed  twenty  in  number,  at  its  first  meeting,  nor 
more  than  five  in  any  one  year  thereafter,  which  members  so  elected 
shall  be  entitled  to  all  the  privileges  of  delegate  members,  but  shall 
receive  no  compensation  for  their  attendance  on  meetings  of  the  State 
Society,  except  when  sent  as  delegates  by  the  district  societies  or  col- 
leges aforesaid.  And  the  said  State  Society  may  elect  honorary 
members  from  any  State  or  country  ;  but  no  person  shall  be  elected 
an  honorary  member  who  is  eligible  to  regular  membership,  nor 
shall  any  honorary  member  be  entitled  to  vote  or  hold  any  olfit'C  in 
said  Society. 

"Section  7.  The  several  district  societies  established  as  aforesaid, 
at  their  annual  meetings,  shall  appoint  not  less  than  three  nor  more 
than  five  censors,  to  continue  in  office  for  one  year,  and  until  others 
are  chosen,  who  shall  constitute  a  district  board  of  censors,  whose 
duty  it  shall  be  carefully  and  impartially  to  inquire  into  the  qual- 
ifications of  all  persons  who  shall  present  themselves  within  the  dis- 


204  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAN   DENTISTRY. 

tricts  where  they  reside,  for  examination,  and  report  their  opinion, 
in  writing,  to  the  president  of  said  district  society,  who  shall  there- 
upon issue,  on  the  recommendation  of  said  board  of  censors,  a  cer- 
tificate of  qualification  to  snch  j^erson  or  persons,  countersigned  by 
the  secretary,  and  bearing  the  seal  of  the  said  district  society. 

"  Section  8.  The  State  Dental  Society  organized  as  aforesaid,  at  its 
first  meeting  shall  appoint  eight  censors,  one  from  each  of  the  said 
district  societies,  who  shall  constitute  a  State  board  of  censors,  and  at 
the  first  meeting  of  said  board  the  meniliers  shall  be  divided  into 
four  classes,  to  serve  one,  two,  three,  and  four  years  respectively,  and 
said  State  Dental  Society  shall,  at  each  annual  meeting  thereafter, 
appoint  two  censoi-s,  to  serve  each  four  years  and  until  their  succes- 
sors shall  be  chosen,  and  fill  all  vacancies  that  may  have  occurred  in 
the  board  by  death  or  otherwise.  Each  district  society  shall  be 
entitled  to  one  and  only  one  member  of  said  board  of  censors.  Said 
board  of  censors  shall  meet  at  least  once  in  each  year,  at  such  time 
and  place  as  they  shall  designate ;  and  being  thus  met,  they,  or  a 
majority  of  them,  shall  carefully  and  impartially  examine  all  persons 
who  are  entitled  to  examination  under  the  provisions  of  this  act,  and 
who  shall  present  themselves  for  that  i)urpose,  and  report  their 
opinion  in  writing  to  the  president  of  said  State  Dental  Society,  and 
on  the  recommendation  of  said  board  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the 
president,  aforesaid,  to  issue  a  diploma  to  such  person  or  persons, 
countersigned  by  the  secretary,  and  bearing  the  seal  of  said  Society. 

"  Section  9.  All  dentists  in  regular  practice  at  the  time  of  the  pas- 
sage of  this  act,  and  all  persons  who  shall  have  received  a  diploma 
from  any  dental  college  in  this  State,  and  all  students  who  shall  have 
studied  and  practiced  dental  surgery  with  some  accredited  dentist  or 
dentists  for  the  term  of  four  years,  shall  be  entitled  to  an  examina- 
tion by  said  board  of  censors.  Deductions  from  such  term  of  four 
years  shall  be  made  in  either  of  the  following  cases: 

"1.  If  the  student,  after  the  age  of  sixteen,  shall  have  pursued  any 
of  the  studies  usual  in  the  colleges  of  this  State,  the  period,  not  ex- 
ceeding one  year,  during  which  he  shall  have  pursued  such  studies 
shall  lie  deducted. 

"2.  If  the  student,  after  the  age  of  sixteen,  shall  have  attended  a 
complete  course  of  lectures  of  any  incorporated  dental  or  medical 
college  in  this  State,  or  elsewhere,  one  year  shall  be  deducted. 

"  Section  10.  Every  person  on  receiving  a  diploma  from  the  State 
Dental  Society  shall  pay  into  the  treasury  thereof  the  sum  of  twenty 
dollars,   and    on   receiving   a   certificate  of   qualification    from    the 


! 


DENTAL   LEGISLATION.  205 

dental  society  of  any  district  the  sum  of  ten  dollars  into  the  treasury 
thereof. 

"Section  11.  The  dental  societies  of  the  respective  districts,  and  the 
Dental  Society  of  the  State,  may  purchase  and  hold  such  real  and 
personal  estate  as  the  purposes  of  their  respective  corporations  may 
require.  The  district  societies  each  not  exceeding  in  value  the  sum 
of  five  thousand  dollars,  and  the  State  Dental  Society  not  exceeding 
twenty  thousand  dollars  in  value. 

"  Section  12.  The  respective  societies  herein  provided  for  may  make 
all  needful  by-laws,  rules,  and  regulations,  not  inconsistent  with  any 
existing  law,  for  the  management  of  the  aifairs  and  property  of  said 
societies  respectively,  and  providing  for  the  admission  and  expulsion 
of  members,  provided  that  such  by-laws,  rules,  and  regulations  of  the 
respective  district  societies  shall  not  be  repugnant  to  nor  inconsistent 
with  the  by-laws,  rules,  and  regulations  of  the  State  Dental  Society. 

"  Section  13.  All  dentists  who  shall  have  been  in  regular  practice  in 
this  State  at  the  time  of  the  passage  of  this  act,  and  all  persons  who 
shall  have  received  a  certificate  of  qualification  from  any  district 
society,  shall  be  eligible  to  membership  in  said  district  societies. 

"Section  14.  The  Dental  Society  of  the  State  of  New  York  shall 
be  entitled  to  all  the  privileges  and  immunities  granted  to  the  Medi- 
cal soeieties  of  this  State. 

"Section  15.  This  act  shall  take  efiect  immediately." 

In  this  enactment  the  State  Society  (convened  and  organized  ac- 
cording to  the  law)  perceived  an  omission, — authorization  to  confer  a 
degree  with  the  diploma.  This  was  conceived  to  be  necessary,  in 
order  to  put  non-graduates  of  colleges  on  an  equal  footing  with 
graduates.  Accordingly,  at  the  next  meeting  of  the  Legislature,  in 
1869,  was  presented  and  passed  the  following  amendment  to  the 
original  law : 

"An  act  to  amend  an  act  entitled  'An  Act  to  incorporate  dental 
societies,  for  the  purpose  of  Improving  and  Regulating  the  Practice 
of  Dentistry  in  this  State.'' 

"  The  people  of  the  State  of  New  York,  represented  in  Senate 

and  Assembly,  do  enact  as  follows  : 

"Section  1.  Section  eight  of  the  act  entitled  Mn  Act  to  incorporate 

dental  societies,  for  the  purpose  of  improving  and  regulating  the 

practice  of  dentistry  in  this  State,'  is  hereby  amended  so  as  to  read 

as  follows : 


206  HISTORY    OF   AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

"  *  Section  8.  The  State  Dental  Society,  organized  as  aforesaid,  at  its 
first  meeting  shall  appoint  eight  censors,  one  from  each  of  the  said  dis- 
trict societies,  who  shall  constitute  a  State  board  of  censors,  and  at  the 
first. meeting  of  the  said  board,  the  members  shall  be  divided  into  four 
classes,  to  serve  one,  two,  three,  and  four  years  respectively;  and  said 
State  Dental  Society  shall,  at  each  annual  meeting  thereafter,  appoint 
two  censors,  to  serve  each  four  years,  and  until  their  successors  shall 
be  chosen,  and  fill  all  vacancies  that  may  have  occurred  in  the  board 
by  death  or  otherwise.  Each  district  Society  shall  be  entitled  to  one, 
and  only  one,  member  of  said  board  of  censors.  Said  board  of  cen- 
sors shall  meet  at  least  once  in  each  year,  at  such  time  and  place  as 
they  shall  designate ;  and  being  thus  met,  they,  or  a  majority  of  them, 
shall  carefully  and  impartially  examine  all  persons  who  are  entitled  to 
examination  under  the  provisions  of  this  act,  and  who  shall  present 
themselves  for  that  purpose,  and  report  their  opinion  in  writing  to 
the  president  of  said  State  Dental  Society,  and  on  the  recommenda- 
tion of  the  said  board,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  president  aforesaid 
to  issue  a  diploma  to  such  person  or  persons,  countersigned  by  the 
secretary  and  bearing  the  seal  of  said  Society,  conferring  upon  him 
the  degree  of  "Master  of  Dental  Surgery"  (M.D.S.) ;  and  it  shall 
not  be  lawful  for  any  other  society,  college,  or  corporation  to  grant 
to  any  person  the  said  degree  of  "Master  of 'Dental  Surgery."*' 

"  Section  2.  Any  person  who  shall  knowingly  or  falsely  claim  or 
pretend  to  have  or  hold  a  certificate  of  license,  diploma,  or  degree, 
granted  by  any  society  organized  under  and  pursuant  to  the  provisions 
of  this  act,  or  who  shall  falsely  and  with  intent  to  deceive  the  public, 
claim  or  pretend  to  be  a  graduate  from  any  incorporated  dental  college, 
not  being  such  graduate,  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor. 

"  Section  3.  This  act  shall  take  eifect  immediately." 

Under  this  law  were  formed  one  main  and  eight  district  societies, 
as  required  by  it,  and  as  noted  in  the  chapter  on  "  Dental  Associa- 
tions." The  degree  (]M.D.S.)  has  been  generally  carefully  conferred, 
and  many  dentists,  in  former  practice  without  any  degree,  have 
availed  themselves  of  the  provisions  of  the  act  in  this  direction. 
Another  valuable  feature  exists  in  section  fourteen  of  the  act.  Under 
this  section  the  State  publishes,  annually  and  gratuitously,  at  least 
eight  hundred  copies  of  the  transactions  of  the  main  society.  Since 
1869  these  volumes  have  been  issued  in  their  order,  at  no  cost  to  the 
jirofossion.  The  act  thus  offers  facilities  for  dental  publication 
unequaled  by  any  other  yet  in  force. 


t 


DENTAL   LEGISLATION.  201 


OHIO. 


Following  in  the  steps  of  Xew  York,  this  State  was  the  third  to 
pass  legislative  enactments  relative  to  dentistry.  Further  than  im- 
mediate succession  in  point  of  time,  however,  the  law  of  Ohio  does 
not  resemble  that  of  the  former  State ;  for  it  is,  perhaps,  the  most 
rigorously  enforced  of  any  of  the  class  of  prohibitory  acts.  The 
following  is  the  text  of  the  original  act : 

"  A  Lmc  to  Regulate  the  Bradice  of  Dentistry  in  the  State  of  Ohio. 

"Section  1.  Be  it  enacted  by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  State 
of  Ohio,  That  it  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person  to  practice  dentis- 
try in  the  State  of  Ohio  for  compensation,  unless  such  person  has 
received  a  di})loma  from  the  Faculty  of  a  Dental  College  duly  incor- 
porated under  the  laws  of  this  or  any  other  State  of  the  United 
States  or  foreign  country,  or  a  certificate  of  qualification  issued  by  the 
State  Dental  Society  or  by  any  local  society  auxiliary  thereto;  pro- 
vided that  nothing  in  this  section  shall  apply  to  persons  now  engaged 
in  the  practice  of  dentistry  in  this  State  before  the  first  day  of  Jan- 
uary, 1873. 

"  Section  2.  Any  person  wlio  shall  practice  dentistry  without  having 
complied  with  the  regulations  of  this  Act,  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of 
a  misdemeanor,  and  upon  conviction  thereof  shall  be  fined  not  less 
than  fifty  or  more  than  two  hundred  dollars;  provided  that  nothing 
in  this  Act  shall  be  construed  to  prevent  physicians  and  surgeons 
from  €'xtracting  teeth. 

"Section  3.  All  prosecutions  under  this  Act  shall  be  by  indict- 
ment before  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas  in  the  County  where  the 
offence  was  committed,  and  all  fines  imposed  and  collected  under  the 
provisions  of  this  Act  shall  be  paid  into  the  Treasury  of  the  County 
where  such  conviction  shall  take  place,  for  the  use  of  the  common 
schools  within  such  county. 

"Section-^.  This  Act  shall  take  effect  and  be  in  force  from  and 
after  its  passage." 

The  above  act  was  passed,  May  8th,  1868;  but  was  afterward 
amended,  as  follows : 

"An  Act  to  amend  Section  One  of  an  Ad,  entitled  ^  An  Ad  to  Regulate 
the  Practice  of  Dentistry  in  the  State  of  Ohio/  passed  May  Sth,  1868. 

"Section  1.  Be  it  enacted  by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  State 


208  HISTORY   OF    AMERICAN   DENTISTRY. 

of  Ohio,  That  Section  One  (1),  of  the  above  named  act,  be  so 
amended  as  to  read  as  follows :  That  it  shall  be  unlawful  for  any 
person  to  practice  dentistry  in  the  State  of  Ohio  for  compensation^ 
unless  such  person  has  received  a  diploma  from  the  Faculty  of  a 
Dental  College  duly  incorporated  under  the  laws  of  this  or  any  other 
State  of  the  United  States,  or  foreign  country,  or  a  certificate  of 
qualification  issued  by  the  State  Dental  Society  :  provided,  that  in  all 
cases  where  any  person  has  been  continuously  engaged  in  the  practice  of 
dentistry  for  a  period  of  five  years  or  more,  such  person  shall  be  con- 
sidered to  have  complied  with  the  provisions  of  this  Act,  and  the  Act 
to  which  this  is  amendatory. 

"Section  2.  Any  person  who  shall  practice  dentistry  without  having 
complied  with  the  regulations  of  this  Act,  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of 
a  misdemeanor,  and  upon  conviction  thereof,  shall  be  fined  not  less 
than  fifty  dollars  nor  more  than  two  hundred  dollars ;  provided,  that 
nothing  in  this  Act  shall  be  construed  to  prevent  physicians  and  sur- 
geons from  extracting  teeth. 

"Section  3.  All  prosecutions  under  this  Act  shall  be  by  indict- 
ment before  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas  in  the  County  where  the 
offence  was  committed,  and  all  fines  imposed  and  collected  under  the 
provisions  of  this  Act,  shall  be  paid  into  the  Treasury  of  the  County 
where  such  conviction  shall  take  place,  for  the  use  of  the  common 
schools  within  such  county. 

"  Section  4.  That  said  original  Section  One  (1)  be  and  is  hereby 
repealed, 

"Section  5.  This  Act  shall  take  effect  and  be  in  force  from  and 
after  its  passage. 

"Passed  March  10th,  1873." 

GEORGIA. 

Legislation  in  this  State  is  of  the  prohibitory  character.  The 
following  is  a  transcript  of  the  law  approved  August  24th,  1872  : 

"An  Act  to  Regulate  the  Practice  of  Dentistry,  and  to  Protect  the 
People  against  Empiricism  in  relation  thereto,  in  the  State  of 
Georgia. 

"Section  1.  Be  it  enacted  by  the  General  Assembly,  that  from 
and  after  the  passage  of  this  act  it  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person 
to  engage  in  the  practice  of  dentistry  in  the  State  of  Georgia,  unless 
said  person  has  graduated  and  received  a  diploma  from  the  Faculty 


DENTAL   LEGISLATION.  209 

of  a  Dental  College,  chartered  under  the  authority  of  some  one  of 
the  United  States  or  foreign  governments,  or  shall  have  obtained  a 
license  from  a  Board  of  Dentists,  duly  authorized  and  appointed  by 
tliis  Act,  to  issue  such  license. 

''Section  2.  That  the  Board  of  Examiners  shall  consist  of  five 
(5)  dental  graduates  or  practitioners  of  dentistry,  who  are  members 
in  good  standing  of  the  Georgia  State  Dental  Society ;  provided, 
that  said  graduates  or  practitioners  have  been  practicing  in  the  State 
of  Georgia  for  a  term  not  less  than  three  (3)  years.  Said  Board 
shall  be  elected  to  serve  for  two  years.  The  president  of  said 
Georgia  State  Dental  Society  shall  have  power  to  fill  all  vacancies  in 
said  Board  for  unexpired  terms. 

"Section  3.  That  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  this  Board,  first,  to  meet 
annually  at  the  time  of  meeting  of  the  Georgia  State  Dental  Society, 
or  oftener,  at  the  call  of  any  three  of  the"  members  of  said  Board. 
Thirty  days'  notice  must  be  given  of  the  annual  meetings.  Sec- 
ondly, to  prescribe  a  course  of  reading  for  those  who  study  dentistry 
under  private  instruction.  Thirdly,  to  grant  a  license  to  any  appli- 
cant who  shall  furnish  satisfactory  evidence  of  having  graduated  and 
received  a  diploma  from  any  incorporated  dental  college,  without  fee, 
charge,  or  examination.  Fourtidy,  to  grant  license  to  all  other  ap- 
plicants Avho  undergo  a  satisfactory  examination.  Fifthly,  to  keep  a 
book,  in  which  shall  be  registered  the  names  of  all  persons  licensed 
to  practice  dentistry  in  the  State  of  Georgia. 

"Section  4.  That  the  book  so  kept  shall  be  a  book  of  record;  and 
a  transcript  from  it,  certified  to  by  the  officer  who  has  it  in  keeping, 
Avith  the  common  seal,  shall  be  evidence  in  any  court  in  the  State. 

"Section  5.  That  three  members  of  said  Board  shall  constitute  a 
quorum  for  the  transaction  of  business,  and  should  a  quorum  not  be 
present  on  the  day  aj)pointed  for  their  meeting,  those  present  may 
aljourn  from  day  to  day  until  a  quorum  is  present. 

"Section  6.  That  one  member  of  said  Board  may  grant  a  license 
to  an  applicant  to  practice  until  the  next  regular  meeting  of  the 
Board,  when  he  shall  report  the  fact,  at  which  time  the  temporary 
license  shall  expire;  but  such  temporary  licenses  shall  not  be  granted 
by  a  member  of  the  Board  after  the  Board  has  rejected  the  ap[)]icant. 

"Section  7.  That  any  person  who  shall,  in  violation  of  tiiis  Act, 
practice  dentistry  in  the  State  of  Georgia  for  a  fee  or  reward,  shall 
be  lial)le  to  indictment,  and,  on  conviction,  shall  be  fined  not  less  tiian 
fifty,  or  more  than  three  hundred  dollars;  ])r()vidc(l,  that  nothing  in 
this  Act  shall  be  construed  to  prevent  any  person  from  extracting 

15 


210  HISTORY   OF   AMEEICAN   DENTISTRY. 

teeth ;  and  provided  further,  that  none  of  tlie  provisions  of  tliis  Act 
shall  apply  to  regular  licensed  physicians  and  surgeons. 

"Section  8.  That  on  trial  of  such  indictment,  it  shall  be  incum- 
bent on  the  defendant  to  show  t-hat  he  has  authority,  under  the  law, 
to  practice  dentistry,  to  exempt  himself  from  such  penalty. 

"Section  9.  That  one-half  of  all  fines  collected  shall  inure  to  the 
informer,  and  the  other  half  to  the  educational  fund  of  the  county. 

"Section  10.  That  all  dentists  who  have  been  in  practice  prior  to 
the  passage  of  this  Act  are  exempt  from  all  provisions  of  the  same. 

"Section  11.  Repeals  conflicting  laws." 

We  have  no  means  of  accurately  estimating  the  value  of  this  law 
in  its  results.     It  appears,  however,  to  be  very  loosely  framed. 

NE^y  JERSEY. 

The  laws  of  this  State  and  Georgia  are  almost  exactly  similar,  as 
will  be  seen  by  the  following : 

''An  Act  to   regulate  the  practice  of  Dentistry,  and   to  protect  the 

^nople  against  empiricism  in  relation  thereto,  in  the  State  of  New 

Jersey. 

"1.  Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  General  Assembly  of  the 
State  of  Xew  Jersey,  That  from  and  after  tiie  passage  of  this  act  it 
shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person  to  engage  in  the  practice  of  den- 
tistry in  the  State  of  New  Jersey,  unless  said  person  has  graduated 
and  received  a  diploma  from  the  faculty  of  a  dental  college,  char- 
tered under  the  authority  of  some  one  of  the  United  States  or  foreign 
governments,  or  shall  have  obtained  a  certificate  from  a  board  of 
dentists,  duly  authorized  and  appointed  by  this  act,  to  issue  such 
certificates. 

"2.  And  be  it  enacted,  That  the  board  of  examiners  shall  consist 
of  five  practitioners  of  dentistry,  who  are  members  in  good  standing, 
of  the  New  Jersey  State  Dental  Society ;  provided,  that  said  prac- 
titioner have  been  practicing  in  the  State  of  New  Jersey  fiir  a  term 
of  not  less  than  three  years;  said  board  shall  be  elected  by  the  New 
Jersey  State  Dental  Society,  to  serve  for  one  year ;  the  president  of 
said  New  Jersey  State  Dental  Society  shall  have  power  to  fill  all 
vacancies  in  said  l)oard  for  unexpired  terms. 

"  3.  And  be  it  enacted.  That  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  this  board, 
first,  to  meet  annually  at  the  time  of  meeting  of  the  New  Jersey 
State  Dental  Society,  or  oftener,  at  the  call  of  any  three  of  the  mem- 


DENTAL   LEGISLATION.  211 

bers  of  said  board ;  thirty  days'  notice  must  be  given  of  the  annual 
meetings ;  secondly,  to  prescribe  a  course  of  reading  for  those  who 
study  dentistry  under  private  instruction ;  thirdly,  to  grant  a  cer- 
tificate to  all  applicants  who  undergo  a  satisfactory  examination; 
fourthly,  to  keep  a  book  in  which  shall  be  registered  the  names  of 
all  persons  having  certificates  to  practice  dentistry  in  the  State  of 
New  Jersey,  after  the  passage  of  this  act. 

"4.  And  be  it  enacted.  That  the  book  so  kept  shall  be  a  book  of 
record  ;  and  a  transcript  from  it,  certified  to  by  the  officer  who  has 
it  in  keeping,  with  the  common  seal,  shall  be  evidence  in  any  court 
in  the  State. 

"5.  And  be  it  enacted.  That  three  members  of  said  board  shall 
constitute  a  quorum  for  the  transaction  of  business,  and  should  a 
quorum  not  be  present  on  the  day  appointed  for  their  meeting,  those 
present  may  adjourn  from  day  to  day  until  a  quorum  is  present. 

"6.  And  be  it  enacted.  That  any  person  who  shall,  in  violation  of 
this  act,  practice  dentistry  in  the  State  of  New  Jersey  for  a  fee,  or 
reward,  shall  be  liable  to  indictment,  and,  on  conviction,  shall  be  fined 
not  less  than  fifty,  or  more  than  three  hundred  dollars ;  provided,  that 
nothing  in  this  act  shall  be  construed  to  prevent  any  person  from 
extracting  teeth  ;  and  provided  further,  that  none  of  the  provisions 
of  this  act  shall  apply  to  regular  licensed  physicians  and  surgeons. 

"  7.  And  be  it  enacted,  Tliaton  trial  of  such  indictment  it  shall  be 
incumbent  on  the  defendant  to  show  that  he  has  authority,  under 
the  law,  to  practice  dentistry  to  exempt  himself  from  such  penalty. 

"8.  And  be  it  enacted,  That  one-half  of  all  fines  collected  shall 
inure  to  the  informer  and  the  other  half  to  the  educational  fund  of 
the  county. 

"  9.  And  be  it  enacted.  That  nothing  in  this  act  shall  apply  to 
persons  who  shall  be  engaged  in  the  practice  of  dentistry  in  this 
State  at  the  time  of  the  passage  of  this  act. 

"  10.  And  be  it  enacted,  That  to  provide  a  fund  to  carry  out  the 
provisions  of  the  third  section  of  this  act,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the 
board  of  examiners  to  collect  from  all  who  received  the  certificate 
to  practice  dentistry,  the  sum  of  thirty  dollars  each,  of  which  sum, 
if  there  be  any  remaining  after  liquidating  necessary  cx^xmiscs,  the 
balance  shall  be  paid  into  the  treasury  of  the  said  New  Jersey  State 
Dental  Society,  to  be  kept  as  a  fund  for  the  more  perfect  carrying 
out  of  the  provisions  of  this  act ;  and  the  board  of  examiners,  for 
their  remuneration,  shall  receive  from  the  above  fund  ten  dollars 
per  day  for  each  day  of  actual  service. 


212  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAN   DENTISTRY. 

"11.  And  be  it  enacted,  Thatthisaet  shall  take  effect  immediately. 
"Approved  March  14th,  1873." 

Tliis  law  is  said  to  have  had  a  very  beneficial  effect  in  Xew  Jersey. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

About  the  year  1865,  the  profession  in  this  State  began  seriously 
to  agitate  tiie.  sid)ject  of  dental  legislation.  The  same  causes  noted 
as  operating  to  this  end  in  New  York,  were  here  of  equal  force  and 
effect.  Authoritative  organization  was  felt  to  have  become  a  neces- 
sitv  ;  and  the  formation  of  a  State  society  upon  a  legal  status  and  with 
legislative  guardianship  was  strenuously  advocated.  In  1867,  the 
Lake  Erie  Dental  Association  had  a  bill  presented,  but  it  was  not 
pushed  to  a  passage.  In  December,  1868,  the  State  Dental  Society 
was  formed,  and  its  first  act  was  to  draft  a  bill  to  be  presented  to  the 
Legislature. 

But  there  seem  to  have  been  insurmountable  difficulties  to  its 
success ;  for  neither  at  the  next  nor  at  subsequent  meetings  of  the 
Legislature  was  the  measure  adopted;  and  it  was  not  until  April 
17th,  1876,  that  a  dental  enactment  finally  became  a  part  of  the  law 
of  this  State.     The  following  is  the  act  as  passed  : 

"  An  Act  to  regulate  the  practice  of  dentistry,  and  to  protect  the  people 
against  empiricism  in  relation  thereto,  in  the  State  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  j/roriding  penalties  for  the  violation  of  the  same. 

"Section  1.  Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representa- 
tives of  the  Commonwealth  of  Pennsylvania,  in  General  Assembly 
met,  and  it  is  hereby  enacted  by  the  authority  of  the  same.  That  from 
and  after  the  passage  of  this  act,  it  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person 
except  regularly  authorized  physicians  and  surgeons  to  engage  in  the 
]>ractice  of  dentistry  in  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  unless  said  person 
has  graduated  and  received  a  diploma  from  the  faculty  of  a  reputable 
institution  where  this  specialty  is  taught,  and  clvirtered  under  the 
authority  of  some  one  of  the  United  States,  or  of  a  foreign  govern- 
ment, acknowledged  as  such,  or  shall  have  obtained  a  certificate  from 
a  board  of  examiners,  duly  appointed  and  authorized  by  the  pro- 
visions of  this  act  to  issue  such  certificate. 

"Section  2.  That  the  board  of  examiners  shall  consist  of  six  prac- 
titioners of  dentistry,  who  are  of  acknowledged  ability  in  the  pro- 
fcs.-iun.      Said   board    shall    be  elected    by  the  Pennsylvania  State 


DENTAL   LEGISLATION.  213 

Dental  Society  at  their  next  annual  meeting,  as  follows :  Two  shall 
be  elected  for  one  year,  two  for  two  years,  and  two  for  three  years, 
and  each  year  thereafter  two  shall  be  elected  to  serve  for  three  years, 
or  until  their  successors  are  elected.  The  said  board  shall  have 
power  to  fill  all  vacancies  for  unexpired  terms,  and  they  shall  be  re- 
sponsible to  said  State  Dental  Society  for  their  acts. 

"  Section  3.  That  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  this  board : 

"First.  To  meet  annually  at  the  time  and  place  of  meeting  of  the 
Pennsylvania  State  Dental  Society,  and  at  such  other  time  and  place 
as  the  said  board  shall  agree  upon,  to  conduct  the  examination  of 
applicants.  They  shall  also  meet  for  the  same  purpose  at  the  call  of 
any  four  members  of  said  board  at  such  time  and  place- as  may  be 
designated.  Thirty  days'  notice  must  be  given  of  the  meetings  by 
advertising  in  at  least  three  periodicals,  one  of  them  being  a  dental 
journal,  andall  published  within  this  State. 

"  Second.  To  grant  a  certificate  of  ability  to  practice  dentistry, 
•which  certificate  shall  be  signed  by  said  board  and  stamped  with  a 
suitable  seal,  to  all  applicants  who  undergo  a  satisfactory  examina- 
tion, and  who  receive  at  least  four  affirmative  votes. 

''Third.  To  keep  a  book  in  which  shall  be  registered  the  names 
and  the  qualifications  of  such,  as  far  as  practicable,  of  all  persons 
who  have  been  granted  certificates  of  ability  to  practice  dentistry 
under  the  provisions  of  this  act. 

"Section  4.  That  the  book  so  kept  shall  be  a  book  of  record;  and  a 
transcript  from  it,  certified  to  by  the  officer  who  has  it  in  keeping, 
with  the  seal  of  said  board  of  examiners,  shall  be  evidence  in  any 
court  in  this  State. 

"Section  5.  That  four  members  of  this  board  shall  constitute  a 
quorum  for  the  transaction  of  business,  and  should  a  quorum  not  be 
present  on  any  day  appointed  for  their  meeting,  those  present  may 
adjourn  from  day  to  day  until  a  quorum  is  present. 

"Section  6.  That  any  person  who  shall,  in  violation  of  this  act, 
practice  dentistry  in  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  shall  be  liable  to 
indictment  in  the  court  of  quarter  sessions  of  the  proper  county ; 
and,  on  conviction,  shall  be  fined  not  less  than  fifty  or  more  tiian 
two  hundred  dollars.  Provided,  That  any  person  so  convicted  shall 
not  be  entitled  to  any  fee  for  services  rendered,  and  if  a  fee  shall 
have  been  paid,  the  patient  or  his  or  her  heirs  may  recover  the 
same  as  debts  of  like  amount  are  now  recoverable  by  law. 

"  Section  7.  That  all  fines  collected  shall  inure  to  the  poor  fund 
of  the  county  in  which  the  prosecution  occurs. 


214  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAN   DENTISTRY. 

"  Seciion  8.  That  nothing  in  this  act  shall  ap})ly  to  persons  who 
shall  have  been  engaged  in  the  continuous  practice  of  dentistry  in 
this  State  for  three  years  or  over,  at  the  time  of  or  prior  to  the  pas- 
sage of  this  act. 

"Section  9.  That  to  provide  a  fund  to  carry  out  the  provisions  of 
the  third  section  of  this  act,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  said  board  of 
examiners  to  collect  from  those  who  receive  the  certificate  to  practice 
dentistry  the  sum  of  thirty  dollars  each,  of  which  sum,  if  there  be 
any  remaining  after  liquidating  necessary  expenses,  the  balance  shall 
be  paid  into  the  treasury  of  the  said  Pennsylvania  State  Dental 
Society,  to  be  kept  as  a  fund  for  the  more  perfect  carrying  out  of  the 
provisions  of  this  act." 


DENTAL  LITERATURE. 


Ix  this  section  it  is  designed  to  present,  in  chronological  order,  the 
standard  and  periodical  literature  of  American  dentistry.  Owing  to 
causes  heretofore  noted,  completeness  in  this  list  is  not  claimed ;  but 
it  is  believed  to  be,  as  far  as  given,  accurate. 

Original  reviews  of  each  work  have  not  been  attempted.  It  is 
thought  that  a  more  interesting  chapter,  historically  considered,  will 
be  obtained  by  recording  those  published  judgments  on  the  works 
which  were  given  in  the  periodical  or  other  reviews  of  the  time. 

STANDARD   WORKS. 

^'Pradlcai  Observations  on  the  Human  Teeth.  By  R.  Woofendale, 
Surgeon-Dentist,  London,  1783."  This  author,  as  before  noted,  has 
been  uniformly  considered  and  quoted  in  this  work  as  an  American 
dentist,  and  his  book  is  therefore  here  included.  It  is  the  earliest  of 
any  of  the  American  dental  works. 

"A  Treatise  on  the  Human  Teeth,  concisely  explaining  their  struc- 
ture, etc."rt^Skinner,  New  York,  1801. 

"^I  Treatise  on  Dentistry. — Explaining  the  Diseases  of  the  Teeth 
and  Gums,  with  the  most  effectual  means  of  Prevention  and  Remedy  ; 
to  which  is  added  Dentition,  with  Rules  to  be  observed  during  that 
Interesting  Period.  By  B.  T.  Longbotham,  Surgeon-Dentist.  Balti- 
more, 1802."  "With  a  good  deal  that  is  fantastic  and  erroneous, 
this  work  contains  no  little  which  is  worthy  of  note,  and  some  of  his 
practice  is  very  much  in  accordance  with  that  of  the  present  day. 
He  proposes  the  cure  of  alveolar  abscess  l)y  laying  it  open  to  the 
bottom,  and  keeping  it  open  by  means  of  lint  dipi)ed  in  tincture  of 
myrrh,  or  some  stimulating  balsam.  .  .  .  He  recommends  filling  the 
roots  of  teeth,  when  from  any  cause,  it  is  not  thought  advisable  to 
extract  them.  He  mentions  having  seen  sets  of  teeth  retained  in  the 
mouth  by  atmospheric  pressure."* 

*  Dr.  Arthur's  review,  American  Journal  of  Dental  Scioncf,  2d  Series,  vol.  ii. 
p.  44.  The  teeth  retained  as  described  by  Longbotham  were  put  in,  probably, 
by  the  method  introduced  by  Gardette,  in  1800. 

215 


210  •  HISTORY   OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

"yl  Treatise  on  the  Management  of  the  Teeth.  By  Benjamin  James, 
M.M.S.S.,  'Solatium  Afflietis.'  Boston,  1814."  The  many  fore- 
going extracts  from  this  book  sufficiently  explain  its  character. 

".1  Practical  Guide  to  the  3Ianagement  of  the  Teeth.  Comprising 
a  Discovery  of  the  Origin  of  Caries,  or  De<!ay  of  the  Teeth,  with  its 
]-*revention  and  Cure.  By  L.  S.  Parmly,  Dental  Professor.  Phila- 
delphia, 1819."  "The  author,  as  the  title  indicates,  advances  what 
at  the  time  of  this  publication  was  a  new  theory  of  the  causes  of 
dental  caries,  which  he  claims  as  his  own  discovery.  He  attributes 
caries  '  to  the  relics  of  what  we  eat  or  drink  (without  regard  to  qual- 
ity) being  allowed  to  accumulate,  stagnate,  and  putrefy  either  in  the 
interstices  of  the  teeth,  as  is  most  commonly  the  case,  or  else  in  the 
indentures  on  their  surfaces,  favorable  for  the  lodgment  of  food.*'* 

^'Lectures  on  the  Natural  History  and  Ilanagement  of  the  Teeth; 
the  Cause  of  their  Decay ;  the  xirt  of  Preventing  its  Accession,  and 
the  Various  Operations,  never  hitherto  suggested,  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  Disea.sed  Teeth.  By  L.  S.  Parmly,  Dentist.  Second  Edition. 
New  York,  1821." 

''An  Essay  on  the  Disorders  and  Treatment  of  the  Teeth.  ,  By  Eleazer 
Parmly,  Dentist.  Third  edition.  New  York,  1822."  "  The  broad 
])roposition  is  here  laid  down,  that  decay  of  the  teeth  is  universally 
caused  by  the  action  of  external  agents ;  and  Dr.  P.  states  that  the 
teeth  are  predisposed  to  caries  in  consequence  of  their  sometimes  being 
of  less  dense  structure,  and  less  capable  of  resisting  the  action  of  the 
decomposing  matter."f 

"The  Family  Dentist.  Containing  a  Brief  Description  of  the 
Structure,  Formation,  and  Diseases  of  the  Human  Teeth.  By  Josiah 
F.  Flagg,  M.D.,  M.S.S.,  Surgeon-Dentist.  Boston,  1822."  The 
objects  and  scope  of  this  work  are  indicated  by  the  "  advertisement" 
with  wliieh  it  opens.  "  1.  To  give  in  as  few  words  as  possible,  a  clear 
description  of  the  structure  and  formation  of  tiie  teeth  ;  and  to  bring 
to  view  those  circumstances  connected  with  their  growth,  with  whicii 
it  is  important  for  every  individual  to  be  acquainted.  2.  To  give  a 
brief  sketch  of  the  most  common  diseases  to  wliich  the  teeth  are 
liable ;  together  with  such  directions,  relative  to  their  treatment  and 
preservation,  as  shall  enable  the  reader  to  take  the  necessary  care  of 
his  own  teeth,  and,  if  a  parent,  to  pay  proper  attention  to  the  teeth  of 
his  children.     3.  To  guard  against  the  injurious  practice  of  ignorant 

*  Dr.  Arthur,  American  .Journal  of  Dental  Science,  2cl  Series,  vol.  ii.  p.  45. 
t  Ibid. 


I 


DENTAL   LITERATURE.  217 

operators;  and  to  remove  some  of  those  popular  prejudices  whicli 
prevent  many  from  adopting  the  only  mode  of  treatment  calculated 
to  diminish  the  liability  to  disease  in  these  useful  and  important 
organs."* 

"  Treatise  on  the  Structure,  Diseases,  and  Management  of  the  Human 
Teeth.  By  Eleazer  Gidney,  Dentist.  Utica,  1824."  Of  this  work 
Dr.  Arthur  says,  "The  author  contends  that  caries  of  the  teeth  is 
produced  by  internal,  as  well  as  external,  causes,  but  gives  preponder- 
ance to  the  latter.  He  says  that  the  nerve  may  be  deprived  of  vitality 
bv  extremes  of  heat  or  cold  acting  upon  the  external  surface  of  the 
sound  tooth,  and  that  it  will  then  suppurate  and  make  its  way 
through  the  substance  of  the  dentine."t 

"Principh's  of  Dental  Surgery  ;  exhibiting  a  New  Method  of  Treat- 
ing the  Diseases  of  the  Teeth  and  Gums,  etc.  By  Leonard  Koeckcr, 
Surgeon-Dentist,  Doctor  in  ^Medicine  and  Surgery,  etc.  London, 
182(3."  This  work  has  been  largely  quoted  in  this  history,  and  is 
sufficiently  well  known  in  general  to  make  any  review  unnecessary. 

"-4  Physiological  Inquiry  into  the  Structure,  Organization,  and 
Nourishment  of  the  Human  Teeth.  By  J.  Trenor,  M.D.,  Dentist.  New 
York,  1828."  Dr.  Arthur  writes  of  this  work  as  follows  :  "  Dr.  T. 
denies  that  the  teeth  possess  that  high  degree  of  organization  now 
generally  ascril)ed  to  them ;  and,  although  he  does  not  regard  them 
as  entirely  devoid  of  vitality,  ])laces  them  lowest  among  the  organ- 
ized tissues.  He  attributes  no  other  office  to  the  pulp  than  that  of 
depositing  upon  its  surface  layer  after  layer  of  bone,  by  exudation, 
similar  to  the  process  by  which  the  shells  of  the  Crustacea  are  formed, 
until  it  is  eventually  entirely  extirpated.  The  nourishment  of  the 
teeth  is  entirely  due,  in  his  estimation,  to  the  peridental  membrane, 
and  he  regards  the  extirpation  of  the  pulp  as  productive  of  no  injury 
to  the  tooth,  and  strongly  advocates  the  practice."^ 

"  Observations  on  Neuralgia,  with  Cases.  By  J.  Trenor,  M.D., 
Dentist.  New  York,  (about)  1828."  Dr.  Arthur  says,  "  Dr.  T.  takes 
the  ground  that  neuralgia  is  caused  by  inflammation  of  dense  struc- 
ture, in  whic;h,  as  somewhat  in  odontalgia,  the  nerves  having  no  room 
for  exhaustion  give  rise  to  those  extremely  painful  symptoms  which 
mark  this  complaint.  .  .  .  His  treatment  consists  in  freely  laying 
open  the  affected  part  with  the  lancet.  ...  He  gives  three  ciises  in 


*  Work  cited,  p.  3. 

f  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  2d  Series,  vol.  ii.  p.  46. 

+  Ibid.,  p.  47. 


218  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAN   DENTISTRY. 

which  the  trouble  seemed  to  be  caused  by  the  teeth,  which,  however, 
were  quite  healthy  ;  relief  was  obtained  by  discovering  the  spot  from 
which  the  affection  seemed  to  take  origin,  and  freely  laying  it  open. 
In  these  cases  the  incisions  were  made  inside  the  mouth,  Mhich  he 
advises  to  be  done  when  it  is  feasible,  in  order  to.avoid  leaving  a  scar 
in  a  visible  part."* 

" Observed iou,s  upon  the  Importance  of  the  leeth.  By  Samuel  Shel- 
don Fitch,  M.D.,  Surgeon-Dentist.     Philadelphia,  1828." 

"A  Si/dem  of  Dental  S urge ri/.  In  three  parts.  I.  Dental  Surgery 
as  a  Science.  II.  Operative  Dental  Surgery.  III.  Pharmacy  con- 
nected with  Dental  Surgery.  By  Samuel  Sheldon  Fitcli,  M.D.,  Sur- 
geon-Dentist. Xew  York,  1829."  This  work  is  the  first  systematic 
treatise  on  dentistry  intended  for  the  student  which  was  published  in 
this  country.  It  was  not,  howev^er,  claimed  by  its  author  to  be  more 
than  an  extended  compilation.  The  works  quoted  in  it  are  numer- 
ous, but  Fox  and  Koecker  receive  the  largest  share  of  attention. 
From  the  very  various  character  of  the  remainder  of  the  works  from 
which  selections  for  it  have  been  made,  it  is  now  valuable  principally 
as  a  mode  of  obtaining  a  comparison  with  more  modern  methods. 

"An  Essay  on  Artificial  Teeth,  Obturators,  and  Palates,  with  the 
principles  for  their  construction  and  application.  By  Leonard 
Koecker,  Surgeon-Dentist,  Doctor  in  Medicine  and  Surgery,  etc. 
London,  1832."  Dr.  Chapin  A.  Harris,  in  a  critical  review  on  this 
book,t  makes,  among  others,  the  following  extract  and  remarks : 
"The  pivoting  method  of  inserting  artificial  teeth  next  engages  his 
attention,  and,  ....  while  many  of  his  views  in  regard  to  their  ap- 
plication and  utility  are  correct,  there  are  others  that  are  evidently 
erroneous.  For  example,  ....  he  says  (this  method)  is  'always 
attended  ivith  more  or  less  in'itation.'  That  this  is  very  frequently  the 
case  we  do  not  deny,  but  that  it  is  not  always,  hundreds  of  cases 
might  be  adduced  to  prove ;  but  it  is  a  raetliod  of  insertion,  I  am 
free  to  admit,  which,  as  Dr.  K.  correctly  observes,  'requires  great 
caution.'  AVhen  properly  done,  however,  and  upon  a  healthy  root, 
I  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  tiiat  it  is  one  of  the  best  and  most 
satisfactory  methods  that  has  ever  l>een  adopted.  .  .  .  The  whole 
work  is  rejjlete  with  instruction  and  valuable  information  on  this 
part  of  the  art  of  the  dentist ;  and  had  the  author  dwelt  a  little  more 
minutely  on  the  various  manipulations  connected  with  the  construc- 

*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Sciunce,  2d  Series,  vol.  ii.  p.  48. 
t  Ibid.,  vol.  i.  p.  180. 


DENTAL    LITERATURE.  219 

tion  of  the  various  descriptions  of  artificial  teeth  on  which  he  has 
treated,  its  vahie  would  have  been  greatly  enhanced,  and,  as  it  is,  we 
regard  it  as  one  of  the  best,  if  not  the  very  best,  treatise  extant  on 
the  subject  in  the  English  language." 

"  Bemarks  on  the  Importance  of  the  Teeth.  On  the  Diseases  of  the 
Teeth  and  Gums  and  on  the  Diseases  produced  by  Diseased  Teeth, 
with  their  Modes  of  Cure,  and  Directions  for  forming  regular  and 
beautiful  Sets  of  Teeth,  and  for  the  Preservation  of  their  Health  and 
Beauty.     By  Francis  B,  Chewning,  Dentist.     Richmond,  1833." 

"An  Essay  on  the  Diseases  of  the  Jaics,  etc.  By  Leonard  Koecker. 
London,  1834." 

"  The  Family  Dentist,  or  a  Familiar  Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Se- 
curing a  Beautiful  Set  of  Teeth.  By  Dr.  Homer  Bostwick,  Dentist. 
New  York,  1835." 

"  An  Inaugural  Dissertation  on  the  Physiology  and  Diseases  of  the 
Teeth.  Submitted  to  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  of  Xew 
York,  and  publicly  defended  for  the  Degree  of  Doctor  of  Medicine, 
April  6th,  1835.  By  Shearjashub  Spooner,  Member  of  the  Montreal 
Medical  Society.     New  York,  1835." 

"  Dentalogia.  A  Poem  on  the  Diseases  of  the  Teeth,  and  their 
proper  remedies.  In  Five  Cantos.  By  Solyman  Brown,  A.M.,  with 
notes  by  E.  Parmly."  This  poem  is  sufficiently  familiar  to  the  pre- 
sent practitioner  not  to  require  extended  notice.  Its  appearance  as 
above  was  about  1835,  and  it  was  subsequently  republished  in  the 
"  Library"  part  of  the  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  Vol.  L, 
1st  Series,  and  again  in  the  succeeding  volume. 

"  Observations  Generales  sur  CIniportance  des  Dents.  Par  A.  L. 
Plough,  Chirurgien-Dentiste  a  la  Nouvelle  Orleans.  New  Orleans, 
1836."  Dr.  Arthur  says,  "The  author  states,  among  other  things, 
this  deplorable  fact,  that  in  visiting  the  best  schools  he  had  taken 
occasion  to  examine  the  mouths  of  the  pupils,  and  nearly  always 
found  them  in  the  most  wretched  condition,  no  attention  having 
apparently  been  paid  to  their  cleanliness.  He  further  states  that  he 
found  seventy  out  of  every  hundred  with  diseased  teeth,  gums  affected, 
and  breath  fetid."* 

"Guide  to  Sound  Teeth,  or  a  Popular  Treatise  on  the  Teeflt.  Illus- 
trating the  whole  judicious  management  of  these  organs,  from  infancy 
to  old  age,  in  which  the  author  will  attempt  to  show  that  the  teeth  of 
all  persons,  which  are  constitutionally  well  formed,  and  who  enjoy 


*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  2d  Series,  vol.  ii.  p.  50. 


y 

220  HISTORY   OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY.  1^ 

good  health,  may,  by  proper  management  and  care,  be  preserved  to 
the  end  of  life.  By  Shearjashub  Spooner,  M.D.  New  York,  183G." 
In  reference  to  this  well-known  work.  Dr.  Arthur  says,  "This  is  the 
most  systematic  and  elaborate  popular  treatise  which  had  been  pub- 
lished up  to  the  time  of  its  appearance.  It  goes  into  the  subject  at 
large  in  full  detail.  ...  In  this  work  Dr.  Spooner  first  made  public 
the  fact  that  arsenious  acid  would  destroy  the  vitality  of  the  dental 
pulp."* 

"A  Public  Treatise  upon  the  Preservation  of  the  Teeth.  Comprising 
the  most  useful  llules  for  securing  their  whiteness  and  beauty,  with 
Observations  on  the  Cause  and  Prevention  and  Cure  of  Caries,  and 
their  effect  upon  the  Health.  Intended  for  Families  and  the  Public 
generally.     By  ^I.  Overfield.     Winchester,  1838." 

"  Dental  Hygeia.  A  Poem  on  the  Health  and  Preservation  of  the 
Teeth.  By  Solyman  Brown,  A.M.,  author  of  '  Dentalogia,' etc. ; 
with  notes.     New  York,  1838." 

"  Observations  on  the  Structure,  Physiology,  Anatomy,  and  Diseases 
of  the  Teeth.  In  two  parts;  part  first  by  Harvey  Burdell,  ^I.D,,  etc., 
part  second  by  John  Burdell,  Dentist.  With  drawings  and  illustra- 
tions.    New  York,  1838." 

A  review  of  the  above  by  Solyman  Brown,  A.M.,f  states  that, 
"The  views  of  Berzelius,  Moriani,  Bell,  Hunter,  Cuvier,  De  Bloin- 
ville,  Fox,  Meckle,  Sabatier,  Pliny,  Lemaire,  Canierarius,  Bessot, 
Good,  Mayo,  Sir  Astley  Cooper,  Lycurgus,  Porphyry,  Plutarch,  Sir 
William  Temple,  Cullen,  Lord  Bacon,  Cheyne,  Lambe,  and  Clark, 
together  with  other  distinguished  authors,"  are  introduced.  As  the 
whole  work  has  only  ninety-six  pages,  this  will  sufficiently  illustrate 
its  character.  Dr.  Brown  adds  that  "One-fifth  ])art  of  the  volume 
is  taken  up  with  remarks  and  authorities  on  the  subject  of  the  natu- 
ral food  of  man,  as  it  stands  connected  with  diseases  of  the  dental 
organs ;  and  whichever  side  of  this  contested  question  the  reader  is 
inclined  to  espouse,  he  will  be  at  least  amused  by  this  part  of  the 
treatise." 

"  An  Essay  on  the  Art  of  the  Manufacture  of  Mineral,  Porcelain, 
or  Incorruptible  Teeth.  By  Shearjashub  Spooner,  M.D.  New  York, 
1838." 

This  work  was,  for  the  period,  an  exhaustive  treatise  on  its  subject, 
and  is  even  yet  of  value. 

*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  2d  Series,  vol.  ii.  p.  50. 

f  Ibid.,  1st  Series,  vol.  i.  p.  19.  j 

i 


DENTAL    LITERATURE.  221 

"  The  Dental  Art,  a  Practical  Treatise  on  Dental  iSurgery.  By 
Chapin  A.  Harris,  M.D.,  Surgeon  Dentist.  Baltimore,  1839."  Dr. 
Artiuir  says  of  this  book,  "This  is  the  first  edition  of  a  work  which 
is  now  so  well  known  that  any  abstract  of  its  contents  would  be  a 
work  of  supererogation.  It  was  the  first  entirely  original  work  pub- 
lished in  this  country  for  the  use  of  the  profession  exclusively,  and 
still  (1851)  stands  alone."*  In  1845  a  second  edition,  very  much 
enlarged  and  thoroughly  revised,  appeared  under  the  title,  "  The 
Principles  and  Practice  of  Dental  Surgery.  By  Chapin  A.  Harris, 
M.D.,  D.D.S."  Dr.  Arthur  says  of  it,  "  The  work  in  this  form  was 
generally  acknowledged  to  be  the  best  practical  treatise  on  Dental 
Surgery  M'hich  had  ever  appeared  in  any  language." f  Since  that 
time,  several  other  editions,  by  various  editors,  have  been  put  forth, 
and  the  last,  in  1871,  by  Philip  H.  Austen,  M.D.,  is  numbered  the 
seventh.  This  work  has,  since  1840,  retained  a  place  as  a  text-book 
in  most  of  the  dental  colleges. 

In  the  year  1840,  the  American  Society  of  Dental  Surgeons  began 
publishing,  in  separate  form,  a  series  of  essays  by  some  of  its  mem- 
bers.    Those  published  were  as  follows : 

" On  the  Utility  of  Artificial  Teeth."    By  Chapin  A.  Harris,  M.D. 

"  On  Toothache  and  its  Cure."     By  Vernon  Cuyler,  M.D. 

"  On  Ulceration  of  the  Fangs  of  the  Teeth,  and  the  Best  Methods 
of  Cure."     By  Elisha  Baker,  M.D. 

"On  the  Preservation  of  the  First  Set  of  Teeth."  By  Enoch 
Noyes. 

"On  the  Importance  of  Regulating  the  Teeth  of  Children  during 
the  Progress  of  the  Second  Dentition."  By  Solyman  Brown,  A.M., 
M.D. 

"  On  the  Importance  of  Stopping  Carious  Teeth."  By  J.  H. 
Foster,  ]\I.D. 

"  On  the  Dangerous  Effects  of  Salivary  Calculus."  By  Edward 
Maynard,  M.D: 

"  On  the  Best  Method  of  Preserving  the  Natural  Teeth."  By  L. 
S.  Parmly,  M.D. 

"  On  the  Necessity  of  Extracting  Diseased  Teeth."  By  E.  Town- 
send. 

"  On  the  Diseases  of  the  Gums."     By  Horace  H.  Hayden,  M.D. 

"  On  First  Dentition."     By  Chapin  A.  Harris,  M.D. 

*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  2d  Series,  vol.  ii.  p.  51. 
t  Ibid. 


222  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

To  what  extent  these  acquired  circulation  is  not  known.  There 
are  but  few  of  them  now  in  existence. 

'■^Preservation  of  the  Teeth.  A  Family  Guide,  being  Familiar  Ob- 
servations on  their  Structure  and  Diseases,  M'ith  practical  illustrations 
and  engravings,  embracing  the  modern  improvements  in  dentistry. 
liy  David  K.  Hitchcock,  Surgeon  Dentist.     Boston,  1840." 

"^  Physiological  and  Pathological  Inquiry,  concerning  the  Physical 
Characteristics  of  the  Human  Teeth  and  Gums,  the  Salivary  Calculus, 
the  Lips  and  Tongue,  and  the  Fluids  of  the  Mouth,  together  with 
their  respective  local  and  constitutional  indications.  By  Chapin 
A.  Harris,  M.D.,  D.D.S.     Baltimore,  1841." 

"  The  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  Pathology  of  the  Human  Teeth, 
with  the  most  approved  modes  of  treatment,  including  operations, 
and  the  method  of  making  and  setting  artificial  teeth ;  with  thirty 
plates.  By  Paul  Beck  Goddard,  M.D.,  M.A.N.S.,  M.A.P.S.,  etc., 
etc.  Aided  in  the  practical  part  by  Joseph  E.  Parker,  Dentist. 
Philadelphia,  1844." 

"The  Natural  History  and  Diseases  of  the  Human  Teeth.  By 
Joseph  Fox,  M.R.,  C.S.L.,  etc.  Remodeled  with  an  introduction 
and  numerous  additions.  By  Chapin  A.  Plarris,  M.D.,  D.D.S. 
Illustrated  with  thirty  plates.     Philadelphia,  1846." 

"  A  Popular  Treatise  on  the  Teeth,  embracing  a  description  of 
their  structure,  diseases,  etc.,  together  with  an  account  of  the  usual 
methods  of  inserting  artificial  teeth.  By  Robert  Arthur,  Doctor  of 
Dental  Surgery,  and  Fellow  of  the  American  Society  of  Dental  Sur- 
geons.    New  York,  1845." 

"  A  Popular  'Treatise  on  the  Teeth,  etc.,  by  E.  G.  Kelley,  M.D., 
etc.  Boston  (2d  Edition),  1846."  This  author  "not  only  i^hows 
how  directly  ill  health  and  imperfect  physical  training  in  childhood, 
operate  in  the  ])roduction  of  subsequent  bad  teeth,  but  traces  the 
connection  of  the  latter  as  the  chief  cause  of  much  disease  and  suf- 
fering, which  none  but  physicians,  and  only  a  few  of  them,  fully 
realize."  * 

"A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Operations  of  Surgical  and  Mechan- 
iccd  Dentistry.  By  Samuel  C.  Harbert,  Surgeon  Dentist.  Phila- 
delphia, 1847." 

"  Teeth — their  Structure,  Diseases  and  Treatment.  By  John  Bur- 
dell,  Dentist.     New  York,  1847." 

"  BemarJcs  on  the  Proper  Mode  of  Administering  Sulphuric  Ether 

*  Boston  Medical  and  Surj^ical  Journal. 


DENTAL   LITERATURE.  223 

• 

by  Inhalation.  By  William  T.  G.  Morton!  Boston,  1847."  "  The 
directions  Avhioh  it  contains  upon  the  subject  are  clearly  expressed, 
and  we  doubt  not,  if  they  were  always  followed,  its  liabiliti/  to  pro- 
duce dangerous  effects  would  be  very  greatly  lessened.  It  is  dedi- 
cated to  the  Surgeons  of  the  Massachusetts  General  Hospital."  * 

"^  Popular  Treatise- on  the  Teeth;  containing  a  history  of  the 
Dental  Art,  with  anatomical  descriptions  of  the  Mouth  and  its  ap- 
pendages, and  accounts  of  Chemical  and  Physiological  E.xperiments 
on  the  Teeth.  Also  a  full  and  accurate  history  of  Ether  or  Letheon, 
for  the  Prevention  of  Pain,  with  directions  for  use.  Designed  for 
the  use  of  families,  and  as  a  Manual  for  the  student  and  practical 
dentist.  Illustrated  with  numerous  engravings;  pp.423.  By  Mayo 
G.  Smith,  Dental  Surgeon.  Boston,  1848."  "  It  embodies  consid- 
erable information  ....  but  we  fear  it  is  too  large  for  the  non- 
professional reader,  and  is  too  deficient  in  detail  for  the  dental  student 
or  practitioner."  f 

"  A  Dictionary  of  Dental  Science,  Biography,  Bibliography  and 
Medical  Terminology.  By  Chapin  A.  Harris,  M.D.,  D.D.S.  Phila- 
delphia, 1849."  "  Not  only  are  all  medical  and  surgical  terms 
exi)lained  Avith  concise  clearness,  but  we  have  also  a  collection  of 
valuable  knowledge  in  all  that  relates  to  dental  science,  which  we 
can  find  in  no  single  Avork  elsewhere.  This  dictionary  will,  among 
j)hysicians  and  surgeons,  successfully  rival  our  best  standard  medical 
dictionaries;  Avhilst  among  dentists  it  cannot  fail  to  command  a 
most  unquestionable  And  decided  preference,  embodying,  as  it  does, 
all  that  the  others  can  teach,  and  much  more  on  Avhich  they  are 
silent.":};  Later  criticisms,  and  the  popular  verdict,  do  not  appear 
to  have  indorsed  the  above  eulogy.  However,  other  editions  of  the 
Avork,  amended  and  altered,  have  made  it  more  valuable  than  in  its 
first  form. 

"  The  Medical  Student's  Guide  in  Extracting  Teeth;  with  numer- 
ous Cases  in  the  Surgical  branches  of  Dentistry.  By  S.  S.  Hornor, 
Practical  Dentist.  Philadelphia,  1851."  "  The  author  of  the  above 
Avork  commences  Avith  a  defence  of  the  key  instrument,  Avhich  after 
'all  others  ftiil,' seems  to  constitute  the 'ancAor' of  his 'hopes.'  .  .  .  . 
The  directions  for  the  removal  of  the  other  teeth,  though  perhaps 


*  C.  A.  Ilarris,  in  Anu-rican  Journ.'il  of  Dental  Science,  1st  Series,  vol.  viii. 
p.  9G. 

f  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  1st  Series,  vol.  viii.  p.  307. 
X  Ibid.,  vol.  ix.  p.  JtOl. 


224  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAX   DENTISTRY. 

• 

not  quite  as  objectionable,  are,  in  our  estimation,  more  or  less  faulty 
and  imperfect."  * 

"  Eflicr  and  Chloroform:  Their  employment  in  Surgery,  Den- 
tistry, ]Mi(l\vifery,  Therapeutics,  etc.  By  J.  F.  13.  Flagg,  M.D., 
Surgeon  Dentist,  etc.     Philadelphia,  1851." 

*' A  Practical  Treatise  on  Dental  Jledicin'e:  being  a  compendium 
of  Medical  Science  as  connected  with  the  study  of  Dental  Surgery. 
By  Tiios.  E.  Bond,  A.M.,  M.D.,  etc.  Philadelphia,  1851."  "  The 
work  of  Professor  Bond  opens  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  dental 
surgery.  Pointing  out,  as  it  does,  the  pathological  relationship 
between  diseased  teeth  and  other  parts  of  the  body,  it  demonstrates, 
in  the  fullest  and  most  conclusive  manner,  the  importance  and  ab- 
solute necessity  of  a  thorough  knowledge  of  anatomy,  jiJii/siologi/, 
pathology  and  therapeutics,  to  the  dentist."  f 

"The  Physioloc/ical  Effects  of  Sulphuric  Uther,  and  its  suj)eriority 
to  Chloroform."    By  Wm.  T.'g.  Morton,  M.D.    Xew  York,  1851." 

"A  Text  Book  of  Anatomy  and  Guide  in  Dissections,  for  the  use 
of  students  of  ^Medicine  and  Dental  Surgery.  By  W.  R.  Handy, 
M.D.,  etc.  Philadelphia,  1853."  "  Dr.  Handy  not  only  studies 
every  individual  part  in  all  the  relations  of  its  elements,  but  he  also 
dwells  particularly  upon  flie  relations,  anatomical  and  physiological, 
of  the  part  with  neighboring  organs  and  with  the  entire  frame. 
Thus,  a  clear,  connected,  and  natural  system  of  teaching  is  arrived 
at,  instead  of  the  eminently  artificial  method  commonly  pursued. 
He  begins  with  what  he  calls  the  (dphabet  of  anatomy,  that  is,  the 
primary  tissues  of  the  body.  Having  studied  these,  he  commences 
with  the  mouth,  and  follows  the  physiological  course  of  the  food  in 
his  demonstration.  The  extremities,  not  having  any  direct  relation 
to  these  functions,  are  described  by  themselves.  We  are  satisfied  that 
a  student  will  learn  more  that  is  valuable  from  this  method,  than 
from  any  other  with  which  we  are  acquainted."  ]{; 

"  Chemistry  and  Metallurgy  as  applied  to  tJic  Study  and  I'ractice  of 
Dental  Surgery.  By  A.  Snowden  Piggot,  M.D.,  etc.  Philadelphia, 
1853."  "The  work  is  divided  into  four  books.  The  first  is  an 
outline  of  organic  chemistry.  It  contains  an  account,  first,  of  the 
ultimate,  and  then  of  the  proximate  elements  of  the  body;  taking 
uj)  first  the  protein  conq)()unds,  then  the  organic  acids  and  bases  in 


*  American  Journul  of  Dentiil  Science,  2(1  Series,  vo'.  i.  p.  388. 

t  Ibid.,  p.  387. 

X  IbiJ.,  vol.  iv.  p.  163. 


I 


DEXTAL   LITERATURE.  225 

rco:iilar  order.  Booh  second  contains  an  account  of  diireftion,  first 
in  the  stomach,  and  then  in  the  intestines.  It  includes,  of  course,  the 
chemistry  of  the  gastric  juice,  the  bile,  the  pancreatic  fluid,  the  intes- 
tinal juice,  the  fseces  and  vomited  matters.  Book  third  contains  the 
chemistry  of  the  mouth.  This  includes  the  chemistry  of  saliva, 
healthy  and  )uorl)id  ;  the  chemistry  of  the  teeth,  of  mucus,  and  of 
salivary  calculus,  as  far  as  known.  Boo/:  fourth  treats  of  the  chem- 
istry and  metallur(::y  of  metals  and  the  earths  used  in  the  maiuifac- 
ture  of  porcelain  teeth.  It  contains,  first,  an  account  of  the  various 
methods  of  applyint:;  heat,  the  construction  of  furnaces,  crucibles, 
lutes,  measurement  of  heat,  and  full  tables  of  fuel,  showing  the  econ- 
omy of  the  different  varieties.  Secondly,  the  metals, — bestowing 
particular  attention  on  gold  and  silver.  Very  fall  tables  of  coins  of 
these  two  metals  are  given,  so  that  the  mechanical  dentist  can  be  per- 
fectly sure  of  the  exact  composition  of  his  alloy.  Thirdly,  the  earths 
and  alkalies,  the  structure  of  porcelain,  the  method  of  preparing  the 
materials  and  the  mode  of  making  and  coloring  artificial  teeth."* 

"A  Treat  i.sc  on  the  Use  of  Adhesive  Gold  Foil.  By  Robert  Arthur, 
M.D.,  D.D.S.  Philadelphia,  1857."  "It  not  only  gives  the  result 
of  the  experience  of  the  autlior,  but  also  explicit  directions  for  the 
pre])aration  and  use  of  the  gold.  In  the  use  of  adhesive  foil,  an 
entirely  different  system  of  manipulation  from  that  employed  in 
filling  teeth  with  ordinary  foil  is  required,  and  as  there  are  many 
cases  in  which  a  better  operation  can  be  made  with  gold  of  this  de- 
scription than  with  common  foil,  the  present  treatise  cannot  prove 
otherwise  than  very  serviceable  to  the  profession."! 

"A  Practical  Treatise  on  Operative  Dentistry.  By  J.  Taft,  Pro- 
fessor of  Operative  Dentistry  in  the  Ohio  College  of  Dental. Sur- 
gery. Philadelphia,  1859."  In  the  course  of  a  very  thorough  review 
of  this  work,;}:  Dr.  J.  H.  McQnillen  makes  the  following  remarks  : 
"  It  was  with  no  little  satisfaction  that  we  noticed  recently  the  an- 
nonncemcnt  that  Professor  Taft  was  engaged  ui)on  th„'  work  that  at 
present  occii[)ies  our  attention.  Remembering  his  long  ex})erience  as 
a  practitioner,  the  advantage  he  enjoyed  as  public  teacher  in  this  de- 
partment, and  as  contributor  to  and  editor  of  one  of  our  journals,  we 
felt  assured  that  a  work  coming  from  such  a  source  could  not  l)ut 
meet  all  the  requirements  of  the  novice  and  the  inexperienced  prac- 


*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  2d  Series,  vol.  iv.  p.  1G6. 

f  Ibid.,  vol.  vii.  p.  698. 

;|:  Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  i.  p.  194. 

16 


22<)  HISTORY   OF    AMERIC^AN    DENTISTRY. 

titioner  in  this  departinciit.  If,  upon  a  careful  perusal  of  the  work, 
candor  coinj)cls  the  confession  that  our  expectations  have  not  been 
entirely  realized,  we  feel  no  hesitation  in  acknowledging  that,  on  the 
whole,  it  is  a  valuable  r^sinne  of  the  practice  that  prevails  with  the 
profession  in  this  country." 

"J.  Practical  Treatise  on  Mechanicnl  Dentistry.  By  Joseph  Rich- 
ardson, D.D.S.,  M.D.,  etc.  Philadelphia,  1800."  "In  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  work  the  author  has  proceeded  in  an  orderly  and 
systematic  manner,  and  his  descriptions  of  the  diiferent  articles  em- 
ployed in  the  dental  laboratory  and  the  various  methods  of  manipu- 
lation in  the  construction  of  artificial  dentures  are  given  in  a  clear  and 
comprehensive  manner.  Some  of  the  plans  advocated  by  the  author 
are  different  from  what  we  should  advise,  but  we  will  not  pretend  to 
say  that  his  course  may  not  be  the  best.  Embracing,  as  the  work 
does,  all  the  prominent  points  connected  with  mechanical  dentistry, 
....  we  gladly  recommend  it  as  a  useful  and  valuable  treatise, 
particularly  to  those  (students)  for  whom  it  was  particularly  pre- 
pared." * 

'^Dental  Anomalies,  and  their  influence  upon  the  production  of 
diseases  of  the  Maxillary  Bones.  By  Am.  Forget,  M.D.,  C.L.D., 
etc.  Philadelphia,  I860."*  "  It  consists  of  two  chapters.  The  first 
treats  of  'Anomalies  of  Nutrition  and  Development.'  Cases  are 
given,  the  first  of  which  is  very  minute  in  all  its  parts;  the  history 
of  the  disease,  the  condition  of  the  patient,  the  diagnosis  of  the  dis- 
ease, the  operation,  the  method  of  its  performance,  with  remarhs  on  the 
same,  the  consequences  of  the  operation,  the  final  residts  of  the  opera- 
tion, with  refiections.  Other  cases  are  also  given,  which,  taken  to- 
gether and  closely  examined,  afford  a  large  amount  of  information. 
Chapter  second  treats  of  anomalies  of  positions  of  the  teeth,  and  their 
pathological  consequences.  This  part  is  also  illustrated  with  cases  of 
much  interest."! 

"  Dentition  and  its  Deranrfcments.  By  A.  Jacobi,  M.D.  New  York, 
1862." 

"^  Manual  on  Extracting  Teeth.  By  Abraham  Robertson, 
D.D.S.,  M.D.  Philadelphia,  1863."  **  This  work,  '  founded  on  tiie 
anatomy  of  the  ])arts  involved  in  the  operation  ;  the  kinds,  and  proper 
construction  of  the  instruments  to  be  used ;  the  accidents  liable  to 
occur  from  the  operation,  and  the  proper  remedies  to  retrieve  such 

*  Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  ii.  p.  281. 

f  Dentnl  Register  of  the  West,  vol.  xiv.  p.  Gl. 


DENTAL    LITERATUEE.  227 

accidents,'  is  the  only  monograph  of  any  note  npon  the  subject.  .  .  . 
Though  we  would  differ  in  some  respects  from  the  autiior,  we  regard 
it  as  a  very  excellent  work."  * 

^^Instructions  in  the  31(1  nipalat ion  of  Hard  Rubber  or  Vuhanite 
for  Dental  Furjioscs.  By  E.  Wildman,  ]\I.D.,  D.D.S.  Philadelphia, 
1865." 

^'  Some  Saggestiona  Concniiiij  the  Nature  and  Treatment  of  Decay 
of  the  Teeth.     By  Robert  Arthur,  M.D.,  D.D.S.     Baltimore,  1807." 

"  Odontalgia;  commonly  called  Tooth-ache, — Its  Causes,  Prevention, 
and  Cure.     By  S.  Parsons  Shaw.     Philadelphia,  1868." 

"  Dental  Materia  Medica.  Compiled  by  James  W.  White,  M.D. 
Philadelphia,  1868."  "  It  fills  a  long-felt  void  in  dental  literature. 
....  The  entire  book  gives  evidence  of  special  care  in  its  prepara- 
tion ;  and  the  information  derived  from  it  can  be  generally,  and  per- 
haps univereally  relied  on."t 

"  Register  Papers;  A  Colkction  of  Chemical  Essays  in  Reference  to 
Dental  Surgery.  By  Geo.  Watt,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  etc.  Philadelphia, 
1868."  *'  As  the  title  of  tiiis  work  indicates,  it  consists  of  a  series  of 
essays  prepared  for  and  originally  publisiied  in  the  Dental  Register 
of  the  West,  flaking  as  the  majority  of  the  papers  do  direct  and 
practical  application  of  chemistry  to  the  needs  of  the  dental  ])racti- 
tioner,  they  cannot  but  ])rove  of  advantage  to  the  profession.  .  .  , 
Among  them,  and  without  detracting  from  the  merit  of  others,  atten- 
tion may  be  directed  in  particular  to  *  The  Action  of  Topical  Reme- 
dies' as  an  ably-written  article,  imparting  valuable  information  in  a 
direction  of  such  importance,  that  this  essay  alone  should  be  suflicient 
to  secure  an  extensive  demand  for  the  book  on  the  part  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  profession."! 

"  A  Treatise  on  the  Diseases  and  Surgery  of  the  Mouth,  Jaws,  and 
Associate  Farts.  By  Jas.  E.  Garretson,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  etc.,  etc. 
Philadelphia,  1869."  In  concluding  an  extended  review  of  the 
above  work,^^  Dr.  ^McQuillen  says,  "In  the  limited  space  granted 
for  a  review,  it  is  impossible  to  do  more  than  mention  the  subjects 
treated,  and  state  that  the  author,  taking  advantage  of  the  recorded 
experience  of  eminent  surgeons,  combined  with  his  own  persoual  ex- 
perience in  this  direction,  presents  not  only  the  general  principles  to 
govern  the  practitioner  in  the  performance  of  the  ne<'essary  opera- 
tions, but  also  a  large  number  of  cases  which  have  been  under  Ills 

*  Dental  RegUter  of  the  West,  vol.  xxii.  p.  309.  t  Ibid.,  j..  308. 

X  Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  x.  p.  38.  i  Ibid.,  vol.  xi.  p.  048. 


228  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAN   DENTISTRY. 

own  care  and  tliat  of  otlier  surgeons.  A  diversity  of  opinion  may 
exist  on  the  part  of  dental  practitioners  relative  to  extending  their 
field  of  practice  by  engaging  in  the  performance  of  surgical  opera- 
tions. There  can,  however,  be  but  one  opinion  relative  to  the  im- 
portance and  necessity  of  the  dentist  being  thoroughly  informed  on 
such  subjects.  No  work  has  been  prepared  heretofore  to  meet  their 
needs;  and  this  one  is  so  well  done  that  it  is  warmly  commended 
to  the  dental  student  and  practitioner  as  a  useful  text-book  to  the 
former  and  an  invaluable  work  of  reference  to  the  latter." 

This  work,  even  before  its  completion,*  was  adopted  as  a  text-book 
by  several  of  the  dental  colleges. 

"  Treatment  awl  Prevention  of  Decay  of  the  Teeth.  A  practical  and 
Popular  Treatise.  By  Robert  Arthur,  M.D.,  D.D.S.  Philadelphia, 
1871."  "The  diiFerence  between  the  methods  in  general  favor  and 
those  which  the  author  commends,  is  radical,  and  if  adopted  will 
revolutionize  the  treatment  of  proximal  surfaces  of  the  teeth.  ,  .  . 
In  the  preface  the  author  claims  as  an  inevitable  conclusion  that  the 
methods  at  present  relied  upon  for  the  prevention  or  arrest  of  decay 
of  the  teeth  are  either  inadequate  or  imperfectly  employed.  .  .  . 
In  the  third  chapter  the  'treatment  of  decay'  is  considered.  Plug- 
ging with  gold  or  with  any  other  material,  it  is  contended,  is  not 
the  only  or  the  best  method  of  arresting  caries,  though  generally  so 
considered.  .  .  .  Arguing  from  the  fact  that  close  contact  of  the 
teeth  leads  to  caries  of  the  proximate  surfaces,  and  that  teeth  stand- 
ing separate  from  each  other  are  not,  as  a  general  rule,  attacked,  the 
inference  is  drawn  that  a  like  exception  can  be  secured  by  artificial 
separation.  This,  then,  is  the  method  of  treating  caries,  which  the 
author  proceeds  to  explain  in  detail."! 

^^  Htudies  in  the  Facial  licgion.  By  Harrison  Allen,  ^I.D.,  etc. 
Philadelphia,  1874."  "The  volunje  is  unique,  because  of  the  effort 
to  embrace  in  small  compass  a  consideration  of  the  anatomy,  l)hysi- 
ology,  and  pathology  of  the  facial  region  with  the  localization  of  dis- 
eased action,  thus  grouping  together  facts  which  otherwise  would 
have  to  l)e  sought  for  throughout  many  volumes."^; 

With  the  above  is  concluded  the  list  of  works  connected  with  the 
dental  specialty  which  have  been  either  written  by  American  dentists 
or  i»ublished  originally  in  this  country.  Up  to  the  year  1840  there 
have  been  included  what  are  generally  known  as  "  popular  treatises," 

*  See  Acknowlfdgmcnt,  page  7  <>f  the  work. 

t  Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  xiii.  p.  591.  X  Ibid.,  vol.  xvii.  p.  20. 


DENTAL    LITERATURE.  229 

but  none  since  that  date;  the  reason  is,  that  the  works  of  that  char- 
acter published  before  that  time  approached  much  more  nearly,  in 
kind  and  practical  value,  to  those  then  considered  j)rofessional  works, 
than  have  the  later  po[)ular  essays  assimilated  to  the  later  strictly  pro- 
fessional publications;  the  former  class  of  works  having  been,  during 
later  years,  simply  advertisements,  in  sco})e  and  effect  if  not  in  de- 
sign ;  whereas  those  of  times  long  past  were  often  very  superior,  in 
character  and  scientific  value, — witness  L.  S.  Family's  "  Practical 
Guide"  (1819),  Josiah  F.  Flagg's  "Family  Dentist"  (1822),  and 
Shearjiishub  Spooner's  "Guide  to  Sound  Teeth"  (1836). 

PERIODICALS. 

"  The  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science."  This,  the  first  dental 
periodical  in  this  or  in  any  country,  was  issued  on  the  first  of  June, 
1839.  "The  circular  of  the  j)ublishing  committee,  E,  Family,  E. 
Baker,  and  Solyman  Brown,  sent  it  forth  with  many  apparent  mis- 
givings as  to  the  success  of  the  experiment,  and  appealed  in  strong 
terms  to  the  more  intelligent  members  of  the  profession,  to  come  for- 
ward to  its  support.  .  .  .  The  journal  was  to  consist  of  forty-eight 
pages,  twenty-four  of  which  were  to  be  devoted  to  the  republication 
of  standard  works  on  dental  theory  and  practice.  It  was  to  be  issued 
monthly.  The  need  of  such  a  publication  was  evinced  by  the  prompt- 
ness with  which  this  effort  was  encouraged.  In  the  fourth  number 
a  list  of  subscribers,  embracing  the  most  eminent  names  in  the  jiro- 
fession,  was  published,  showing  that  there  were  at  that  time  one 
hundred  and  seventy-four  subscribers  taking  five  hundred  and  eleven 
copies.  This  may  seem  a  small  luimber,  but  when  it  is  recollected 
that  this  was  vears  ai>;o,  when  the  number  of  intellijrent  readiny; 
dental  surgeons  was  very  small,  it  must  be  regarded  as  evidence  of  a 
remarkably  general  interest  in  the  undertaking.  During  the  iirst 
year  of  its  publication  the  Journal  was  conducted  under  the  editorial 
charge  of  E.  Family  of  Xew  York,  and  C  A.  Harris  of  Baltimore, 
in  which  (latter)  city  it  was  printed.  It  was  issued  with  some  irregu- 
larity, at  the  subscription  jirice  of  three  dollars  per  annum.  At  the 
close  of  the  year  it  came  into  the  possession  of  the  American  Society 
of  Dental  Surgeons,  which  at  that  time  was  organized.  The  title 
was  then  chantred  to  that  of  the  '  American  Journal  and  I^ibrarv  of 
Dental  Science.'  It  was  now  issued  in  quarterly  numbers,  and  the 
subscription  price  was  increased  to  five  dollars.  It  was  placed  by 
the  Society  in  the  charge  of  C.  A.  Harris  of  Baltimore,  and  Solyman 


2;^0  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

Brown  of  New  York.  The  editors  were  to  be  assisted  in  their  labors 
by  twenty  collaborators,  whose  duty  it  was  to  furnish  matter  for  the 
work  and  to  aid  its  circulation.  From  that  period  until  August, 
1850,  the  Journal  continued  to  be  issued  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Society,  under  the  charge  of  several  editors,  api)ointed  yearly.  At 
the  annual  meeting,  in  that  year,  it  was  transferred  to  Dr.  C.  A. 
Harris,  of  Baltimore,  the  Society  relinquishing  all  control  of  the 
Journal,  which  is  now  a  private  enterprise."* 

During  the  period  of  republication  of  standard  works  in  this  peri- 
odical, the  following  were  issued,  given  in  the  order  of  their  appear- 
ance : 

The  Natural  History  of  the  Hurnan  Teeth,  etc.  By  John  Hunter, 
F.R.S.,  etc.     With  notes  by  Eleazer  Parmly. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Diseases  of  the  Teeth.  By  John  Hunter, 
F.R.S.,  etc. 

Dentalogia :  A  Poem  on  the  Diseases  of  the  Teeth  and  their  Proper 
Remedies.  By  Solyman  Brown,  A.]\I.  With  notes  by  Eleazer  Parmly, 
Dentist. 

A  Treatise  on  First  Dentition  and  the  frequently  Serious  Disorders 
which  depend  upon  it.  By  M.  Bauraes.  Translated  from  the  French 
by  Thomas  E.  Bond,  Jr.,  M.D. 

Principles  of  Dental  Surgery,  etc.    By  Leonard  Koecker,  M.D.,  etc. 

Researches  on  the  Development,  Structure,  and  Diesases  of  the  Teeth. 
By  Alexander  Xasmyth,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S.,  etc. 

A  Treatise  on  the  Diseases  of  the  Mouth.  By  J.  B.  Gariot,  M.D, 
Translated  from  the  French  by  J.  B.  Savier,  D.D.S.  With  notes  by 
the  Editors  of  the  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science. 

A  Treatise  on  the  Disoi'ders  and  Deformities  of  the  Teeth  and  Gums, 
etc.     By  Thomas  Berdniore,  M.C.S,,  etc. 

A  Treatise  on  the  Anatomy  and.  Physiology  of  the  Teeth,  etc.  By 
David  Wemyss  Jobson,  M.R.C.S.E.,  etc. 

A  Xeic  Treatise  on  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Dental  Surgery.  By 
J.  Lefoulon,  Surgeon-Dentist.  Translated  from  the  French  by 
Thomas  E.  Bond,  Jr.,  M.D.,  A.M. 

Anatomy  of  the  Dental  System,  Human  and  Comjjarative.  By  Ph. 
Fr,  Blandin.    Translated  from  the  French  by  Robert  Arthur,  D.D.S. 

A  Treatise  on  Second  Deidition,  etc.  By  C.  F.  Delabarre,  M.D.,  etc. 
Translated  from  the  French  by  (anonymous,  but  supposed  to  be)  Dr. 
Chapin  A.  Harris. 

*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  2d  Series,  vol.  ii.  p.  52. 


DENTAL    LITERATURE.  231 

A  Critical  Inquiry  iido  a  few  Facts  connected  with  the  Teeth.  By 
George  Waite,  Esq.,  Surgeon-Dentist,  etc. 

Complete  Elements  of  the  Science  and  Art  of  the  Dentist.  By  AT. 
Desirabode,  assisted  by  his  sons,  etc.  Translated  from  the  French 
by  (anonymous,  but  supposed  to  be)  Dr.  Harris. 

An  Essai/  on  the  Structure  and  Formation  of  the  Teeth  in  Man  and 
Various  Animals.  By  Robert  Bhdce,  M.!).  Revised  and  corrected. 
With  notes  by  C.  O.  Cone,  D.D.S. 

The  Youth's  Dentist,  etc.  By  J.  R.  Duval,  Dentist,  etc.  Trans- 
lated from  the  French  by  J.  Atkinson,  Surgeon-Dentist,  M.R.C.S.E., 
etc. 

A  Treatise  on  the  Diseases  and  Surgical  Operations  of  the  3Iouth 
and  Parts  Adjacent,  etc.  By  M.  Jourdain,  Dentist,  etc.  Translated 
from  the  French,  by  (anonymous,  but  supposed  to  have  been)  P.  H. 
Austen,  M,D. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  Dental  Medicine,  etc.  By  Thomas  E.  Bond, 
A.M.,  M.D.,  etc.* 

The  method  of  publication  adopted  for  this  journal  is  somewhat 
singular,  and  productive  of  inconvenience  in  the  matter  of  reference. 
The  first  ten  volumes  constitute  the  "first  series,"  the  second  ten  vol- 
umes the  "second  series,"  and  the  remainder,  so  far  as  issued,  make 
a  "third  series,"  each  scries  being  numbered  in  volumes  from  one 
onward,  as  though  a  separate  publication.  The  Journal  is  still  in 
active  existence,  being  now  edited  by  F.  J.  S.  Gorgas,  M.D.,  of  Bal- 
timore. 

Stockton's  Dent(d  Intelligencer  was  the  second  dental  periodical  in 
existence.  It  was  commenced  about  November,  1844,  being  j)ub- 
lished  and  edited  by  S.  W.  Stockton  &  Co.,  of  a  dental  depot  in 
Philadelphia,  and  also  in  I^ondon,  England,  where  Mr.  James  Rob- 
inson, Surgeon-Dentist  to  the  Metropolitan  Plospital,  was  its  editor. 
It  was  issued  in  pamphlet  form,  in  monthly  numbers,  but  how  long 
it  continued  to  be  published  has  not  been  determined.  We  are  in 
possession  of  a  copy  dated  October,  1847  ;  and  Dr.  Arthur,  in  1851, 
stated t  that  the  Intelligencer  was  not  then  in  existence;  therefore  it 
is  evident  that  its  publication  was  discontinued  between  those  dates. 

*  Dr.  Arthur,  in  his  essay  on  the  History  of  Dental  Literature  (American 
Journal  of  Dental  Science,  2d  Series,  vol.  ii.  p.  48),  gives  a  list  of  tlie  republica- 
tions of  the  Journal,  wliich  is  both  incomplete  and  incorrect.  The  above  enumera- 
tion is  believed  to  be  correct,  being  taken  from  the  library  of  the  late  Dr.  A. 
WeStcott,  who  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Journal. 

■)■  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  2d  Series,  vol.  ii.  p.  68. 


232  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DP^XTISTRY. 

Tlie  New    York  Dental  Recorder  was  first  issued  in  September, 

1846,  in  monthly  numbers,  in  wliich  form  it  continued  until  its  ces- 
sation. The  first  volume  was  edited  by  J.  S.  Ware,  M.D. ;  the 
second  to  the  fifth,  inclusive,  by  C.  C.  Allen,  M.D. ;  the  sixth  and 
seventh  by  C.  C.  Allen,  M.D.,  and  A.  Hill,  D.D.S.;  the  eijrhth  by 
A.  Hill,  b.D.S.;  and  the  ninth  and  tenth  by  C.  W.  Ballard,  D.D.S. 
The  last  number  of  the  tenth  volume  is  dated  November,  1856,  at 
which  time  the  ]niblication  ceased;  the  publishers,  Messrs.  Sutton  & 
Raynor,  declaring  that  it  had  ceased  to  be  pecuniarily  self-supporting.* 

The  Dental  Ber/ister  of  the  West  was  first  issued  in  October,  1847, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  Association  of  Dental 
Surgeons,  with  James  Taylor,  M.D.,  and  B.  B.  Brown,  M.D.,  as 
editors.  It  continued  under  the  control  of  that  Association  until 
1852.  Its  issues  were  quarterly  to  1859.  In  1858  it  was  owned  by 
J.  Taft,  D.D.S. ,  and  in  1859  it  became  the  property  of  John  T. 
Toland,  of  the  Cincinnati  Dental  De])ot,  and  owner  of  the  Dental 
Reporter,  which  latter  journal  was  discontinued  upon  Mr.  Toland's 
accession  to  the  proj)rietorship  of  the  Regkter.  He  did  not  hold 
it  long,  however,  and  it  became  the  property  of  Dr.  Tai't,  by  whom 
it  was  transferred,  in  1873,  to  Messrs.  Spencer  &  Moore,  now  Spen- 
cer, Crocker  &  Co.  Since  1859  it  has  been  issued  monthly.  From 
1856  until  1872  it  wa.s  edited  by  J.  Taft,  D.D.S.,  and  Geo.  Watt, 
M.D.     It  has  since  been  under  the  sole  editorial  charge  of  Dr.  Taft. 

The  Dental  Neics  Letter  was,  like  the  Register,  begun  October, 

1847,  being  published  by  Messrs.  Jones,  Whitest  Co.,  in  Philadelphia, 
as  a  quarterly  jiamphlet  of  sixteen  pages,  edited  impersonally.  The 
second  volume,  by  Jones,  White  &  McCurdy,  was  increased  to  twenty- 
four  pages  per  number.  The  fourth  volume  had  thirty-two  pages, 
and  the  numbers  of  the  fifth  volume  M'ere  increased  to  sixty-four 
pages,  which  size  was  retained  during  its  further  existence. 

The  seventh  volume  was  the  first  to  emerge  from  the  impersonal 
form  of  editorship.  Its  conductors  were  J.  D.  White,  D.D.S.,  M.D., 
and  J.  R.  McCurdy,  D.D.S.  These  names  were  continued  until 
1859,  when  the  journal  ceased  to  exist  as  the  News  Letter  and 
apjieared  as 

Tlie  Dental  Cosinox,  under  the  ownership  of  Messrs.  Jones  & 
White,  and  editorship  of  J.  D.  White,  D.D.S.,  M.D.,  J.  H.  McQuil- 
len,  D.D.S.,  and  George  J.  Ziegler,  M.D.     The  new  journal  was 


*  Dental  Register  of  the  West,  vol.  x.  p.  484. 


I 


DENTAL    LITERATURE.  233 

also  issued  monthly.  In  18G1,  Dr.  8.  S.  White  became  sole  pro- 
prietor. In  1865,  Dr.  J.  D.  White  ceased  his  editorship,  Drs. 
McQuilleii  and  Zie^ler  continuing.  In  1872,  James  W.  White, 
M.D.,  D.D.S.,  assumed  the  editorial  charge,  in  which  position  he 
still  remains. 

This  journal  has  probably  a  wider  circulation  than  any  other 
dental  periodical  has  ever  attained.  It  is,  indeed,  sufficiently  well 
known  to  render  further  reference  to  it  quite  unnecessary. 

The  Dental  Times  and  Advertiser  was  begun  in  1851,  in  Baltimore, 
as  a  quarterly,  under  the  editorship  of  Alfred  A.  Blandy,  M.D., 
D.D.S.    Particulars  as  to  its  further  existence  have  not  been  obtained. 

Tlic  Dental  Expositor  was  started  in  New  York,  as  a  semi-annual 
quarto,  by  Solyman  Brown,  A.M.,  INI.D.  The  design  was  unique. 
The  first  number  contained  "the  editor's  well-known  didactic  poem, 
'Dentalogia,'  in  five  cantos,  as  originally  ^jublished  by  Dr.  E.  Family 
for  private  distribution  among  his  friends."*  The  second  number 
contained  "  Dental  Hygeia,"  another  poem,  also  by  Dr.  Brown.  The 
third  commenced  the  republication  of  Dr.  Brown's  treatise  on  "Me- 
chanictd  Dentistry,"  which  originally  appeared  as  a  series  of  articles 
contributed  to  the  American  Journal  of  Dental  Seieiice.'f 

It  is  believed  that  but  three  numbers  were  issued;  at  least,  no 
information  as  to  any  others  has  been  received. 

Brown's  Dental  Advertiser  was  issued  in  Cincinnati,  in  1854,  as  a 
quarterly.  It  was  owned  and  edited  by  J.  M.  Brown,  also  the  pro- 
prietor of  a  dental  depot.  Further  particulars  in  its  regard  have 
not  been  obtained. 

The  Dented  Monitor  was  a  quarterly  issued  in  Xew  York  City  in 
1854,  by  J.  G.  Ambler,  M.D.,  D.D.S,,  and  intended  for  the  general 
reader  more  than  for  tiie  professional  one. 

The  Dental  Obtni-ator  was  begun  in  New  Orleans,  May,  1855,  pub- 
lished quarterly,  and  edited  by  John  S.  Clarke,  D.D.S.  It  did  not 
enjoy  a  long  existence. 

The  Foreep  was  the  title  (as  ])rinted)  of  a  monthly  publication 
issued  in  Xew  York  City  in  1855,  by  the  Xew  York  Teeth  Manu- 
facturing Company.     How  long  it  existed  is  not  known. 

TJie  American  Dental  Review  was  begun  at  St.  Louis  about  1857-8, 
and  published  quarterly  by  the  editor  and  proprietor.  Dr.  .V.  M.  Leslie. 

*  Dental  Reu:ister  of  the  West,  vol.  v.  p.  252. 

t  First  Series,  vol.  ii.  pp.  161,  231,  260;  vol.  iii.  pp.  81,  189,  233. 


234  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

The  Dental  Reporter  was  first  issued  in  Cincinnati  in  April,  1858, 
as  a  quarterly,  l)y  John  T.  Toland.  It  was  discontinued  in  1859,  as 
before  noted,  in  consequence  of  Mr.  Toland  becoming  the  owner  of 
the  Dental  Register  of  the  West. 

The  New  York  Dental  Journal  and  RepoHer  was  issued  in  Xew 
York  City,  July,  1858,  under  the  editorship  of  Drs.  Geo.  H,  Ferine 
and  Frank  H.  Norton.  In  1860,  the  name  of  the  publication  was 
changed  to  The  New  York  Dental  Journal,  and  Dr.  Ferine  became 
disconnected  with  it,  W.  B.  Roberts  assuming  the  i)roprietorship,  and 
Frank  H.  Norton  continuing  in  the  editorial  chair.  The  manner  of 
publication  of  this  journal,  or  the  date  of  its  cessation,  has  not  been 
obtained.     It  was  in  existence  in  1864. 

The  Cincinnati  Dental  Lamp  was  begun  in  that  city  in  November, 

1858,  with  Dr.  J.  M.  Brown  as  editor  and  proprietor.  The  time  of 
its  demise  has  not  been  obtiiiend. 

The  Dental  Enterprise  was  a  monthly  journal,  first  issued  about 

1859,  in  Baltimore,  by  Henry  Snowden.     It  is  not  now  in  existence. 

The  Southern  Dental  Examiner  was  started  in  Atlanta,  Ga.,  in  May, 

1860,  and  issued  monthly  under  the  editorship  of  Dr.  J.  F.  H. 
Brown.  It  is  believed  to  have  been  discontinued  within  a  short 
time  thereafter. 

The  Vulcanite  was  first  j>ublished  in  jMay,  1860,  in  New  York 
City,  and  regularly  a})peared  for  some  time,  as  a  quarterly.  It  was 
published  by  the  American  Hard  Rubber  Company,  and  devoted  to 
the  interests  of  the  dental  branch  of  that  business,  under  the  editor- 
ship of  B.  W.  Franklin. 

Tlie  Dental  Quarterly  was  begun  March,  1862,  in  Fhiladelphia, 
and  published  as  a  quarterly  by  Johnson  &  Lund  of  that  city,  the 
editors  being  Dr.  Ambler  Tees  and  F.  N.  Johnson. 

The  People's  Dental  Journal  was  issued  in  Chicago,  January,  1863, 
and  edited  at  first  l)y  W.  W.  All])ort,  D.D.S.,  and  S.  T.  Creighton, 
and  subsequently  by  Dr.  AUport,  A.  Hill,  D.D.S.,  and  J.  Richard- 
son, D.D.S.     Its  periods  of  issue  have  not  been  obtained. 

The  Dental  Times  was  begun,  July,  1863,  in  Fhiladelphia,  as  a 
quarterly,  edited  and  published  by  the  Faculty  of  the  Fennsylvania 
College  of  Dental  Surgery.  It  continued  to  be  issued,  certainly 
until  1873,  and  how  long  thereafter  is  not  known  to  us.  It  is  not 
now  in  existence. 

TJie  Dental  Circular  and  Examiner  was  the  title  of  a  quarterly 


DENTAL   LITERATURE.  235 

publication  in  Albany,  New  York,  commenced  January  1st,  1865, 
and  edited  and  published  by  B.  Wood,  M.D.,  in  the  interests  of  his 
plastic  filling  material.     It  is  long  since  out  of  existence. 

The  Missouri  Dental  Journal  was  first  issued  in  January,  1869, 
in  St.  Louis.  The  first  editors  were  Homer  Judd,  M.D.,  D.D.S., 
Henry  S.  Ciiase,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  and  W.  H.  Eames,  D.D.S.  The 
present  editor  is  Dr.  Henry  S.  Chase.     It  is  published  monthly. 

The  Dental  Advertiser  was  begun  in  May,  1869,  in  Bufi'alo,  New 
York,  by  the  Buffalo  Dental  Manufacturing  Company.  It  is  still 
issued  quarterly. 

The  Dental  3Iirror  was  the  title  of  a  small  pamphlet  published 
monthly  in  St.  Louis,  beginning  January,  1872,  by  the  St.  Louis 
Dental  Society.  It  was  probably  (if  we  may  judge  from  the  char- 
acter of  its  contents)  intended  for  distribution  to  the  patients  of  the 
Society's  members.  * 

The  Pennsylvania  Journal  of  Dental  Science  was  begun  January, 
1874,  in  Lancaster,  Pa.,  by  Samuel  Welchens,  D.D.S.,  by  whom  it  is 
still  edited.     It  appears  monthly. 

John.sto)i's  Dental  Miscellany  was  begun  in  New  York  City,  Janu- 
ary, 1874,  and  issued  monthly  from  Johnston  Brothers'  dental  depot, 
by  whom  it  continues  to  be  published. 

The  Dental  Science  and  Quarterly  Art  Journal  was  the  name  of  a 
periodical  started  in  New  York  City,  February,  1875,  under  the 
editorship  of  A.  P.  Merrill.  It  was  intended  for  the  general  reader. 
It  is  believed  to  have  been  discontinued. 


DENTAL    EDUCATION. 


The  history  of  the  progress  of  dental  education  in  this  country 
may  be  divided  into  four  epochs:  1.  The  methods  in  vogue  from 
1780  to  1840.  2.  The  causes  leading  to  the  establishment  of  dental 
schools,  and  the  contemporary  opinions  thereon.  3.  The  results  of 
such  establishment.  4.  The  present  movement  toward  a  higher 
standard  of  qualificationsfof  the  dental  practitioner  than  has  yet 
been  held. 

In  treating  of  the  subject,  the  al)ove  progression  will  be  regarded  ; 
though  the  exactness  of  the  noted  divisions  will  not  be  attempted, 
and  no  original  interpretation  of  them  will  be  made.  It  is  thought 
that  more  of  interest  and  value  will  attach  to  a  retrospective  state- 
ment of  the  ideas  of  prominent  dentists,  as  published  from  time  to 
time,  than  to  any  presentation  of  original  views  on  the  matter.  Ac- 
cordingly, this  chapter  will  be  mainly  a  comjiilation  from  profes- 
sional literature,  arranged,  generally,  chronologically,  and  with  only 
such  individual  comment  as  will  be  necessary  to  make  a  connected 
narrative. 

The  earlier  existence  of  the  dental  specialty  in  this  country  pre- 
sents an  aspect  almost  exactly  similar  to  that  of  the  beginning  of 
any  science.  The  necessity  for  skilled  attention  to  oral  diseases  was, 
of  course,  apparent;  and  hence  arose  the  demand  for  it, — which,  from 
the  very  nature  of  the  case,  it  was  impossible  at  once  to  supply ; 
since  a  science,  the  rudiments  of  which  are  unknown,  cannot  com- 
mand even  primary  teachers,  much  less  final  proficients,  in  its  prac- 
tical aj)plications.  Thus  it  came  that  the  great  majority  of  early 
dentists  were  entirely  empiric  ;  and  hence,  also,  the  secrecy  regarding 
processes,  and  the  professional  conservatism  dis])layed  during  the  first 
decades  of  the  existence  of  American  dentistry.  Dr.  E.  Townseud, 
in  an  address  delivered  before  the  Society  of  the  Alumni  of  the 
Baltimore  College  of  Dental  Surgery,*  (1850)  said  as  follows : 

*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  1st  Series,  vol.  x.  p.  180. 
236 


DENTAL    EDUCATION.  237 

"  The  science  of  Dental  Surgery,  properly  so  called,  is  scarcely 
older  than  the  oldest  man  in  this  assembly,  and  in  this  country  it  is 
almost  as  young  as  the  youngest  of  its  mature  practitioners.  Its  ori- 
gin, moreover,  is  not  only  a  very  recent,  but  it  is  also  a  very  humble 
one.  .  .  .  Twenty  years  ago  dentistry  was  jiracticed  as  a  secret  art; 
its  disciples  evinced  great  exclusiveness,  and  carefully  hid  from  each 
other  the  methods  by  which  they  attained,  or  thought  they  attained, 
any  individual  su])eriority.  The  profession  was  not  then  a  fraternity; 
it  had  not  the  character  of  a  liberal  art ;  it  had  all  the  meairrcness  of 
a  selfish  individualism  ;  its  spirit  was  narrow  and  exclusive,  and 
full  of  arrogance  and  pretence,  and,  while  it  thus  encouraged  all  that 
is  illiberal  in  rivalry,  it  hindered  whatever  is  useful  and  noble  in 
generous  emulation.  But  this  was  not  an  essential  or  intrinsic 
meanness  of  the  profession,  it  was  the  fault  of  its  ignorance  and 
inexperience;  in  a  word,  a  fault  insepara^^le  from  its  infancy.  The 
earlier  history  of  every  branch  of  the  healing  art  confesses  similar 
blemishes,  and  all  alike  justly  rest  their  present  claims  upon  their 
present  character." 

From  about  1785  to  about  1830,  the  method  of  dental  practice 
was  largely — and  at  first  almost  entirely — itinerant.  Permanent 
locations  were  effected  only  in  the  larger  seaboard  cities,  as  Boston, 
New  York,  Philadelj)hia,  and  Baltimore.  The  following  is  an  ex- 
tract from  a  letter  of  Dr.  E.  Parmly  to  Dr.  J.  Brockway,  Sr.  :*  "  I 
met  (1817)  with  no  jierson  who  even  called  himself  'dentist'  from 
Philadelphia  to  New  Orleans,  and  I  practiced  in  the  principal  towns 
going  west  between  the  two  places."  Dr.  J.  Brockway,  himself, 
practiced  about  1822  in  Newbury,  Vermont;  and  records  the  factf 
that  he  was  then  *'  the  only  dentist  known  from  Canada  to  Albany, 
and  from  the  Rocky  to  the  White  jNIountains."  The  very  word 
"  dentist"  was  not  known  to  many.  Dr.  Blakesly  relates  an  inci- 
dent in  point,  occurring  as  late  as  1834.  He  went  into  the  country, 
from  Utica,  X.  Y.,  to  attend  the  daughter  of  a  deaf  old  farmer,  and 
was  auuised  to  hear,  through  a  thin  wall,  the  anuounctement  of  his 
advent  to  the  farmer,  who  insisted  upon  understanding  (lentist  to  be 
tempest,  and  finally  desired  to  know  what  a  dentist  was. J; 

It  is  thus  apparent  that  dental  instruction  of  a  good  character  was 
not  easy  to  be  obtained.  Only  those  permanently  located  were  in  a 
position  to  give  it,  and  then  only  at  considerable  expense  of  time, 

*  Lecture  before  the  Third  District  Dental  Society  of  New  York,  1869,  by 
Dr.  BrocI<\vay,  p"ge  5. 

t  Loc.  cit.,  p.  6.  t  Manuscript  of  Dr.  S.  B.  Pulnier. 


238  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAN   DENTISTRY. 

labor,  and  money.  The  class  of  practitioners  at  all  capable  of  giving 
instruction  "was  necessarily  very  small.  Men  engaged  in  a  lucrative 
practice,  operating  during  the  day,  and  doing  goldsmiths'  work  at 
night,  could  not  devote  much  time  to  the  instruction  of  pupils.  Be- 
sides, the  advantage  of  a  certificate  of  pupilship  from  one  of  the 
highly  reputed  dentists  was  so  great,  that  very  large  fees  were  ))aid 
for  such  tuition,  imperfect  as  it  was.  Five  hundred  dollars  was 
commonly  asked  for  the  office  fee  of  a  student,  and  of  course,  very 
few  could  avail  themselves  of  such  dearly-purchased  privileges."* 

"  Mr.  Parmly,  being  desirous  that  his  ])eculiar  treatment  of  the 
teeth,  his  operations  and  general  views  of  the  subject,  should  become 
as  widely  diffused  as  possible,  for  the  common  benefit  of  society,  un- 
dertakes to  qualify  gentlemen  of  liberal  education  for  practice,  as 
dentists,  on  the  following  terms :  For  practice  in  London,  $1000. 
In  any  other  city  of  Great  Britain  or  America,  $700.  For  foreign 
practice,  $500."  f 

The  last  quotation  must  not  be  regarded  as  savoring  of  quackery, 
at  least  so  far  as  its  advertising  character  is  concerned.  The  dental 
ethics  of  the  day  did  not  exclude  advertising  as  unj)rofessional.  This 
method  of  obtaining  celebrity  was  resorted  to  by  the  very  best  men 
in  dentistry,  without  fear  of  professional  censure.  It  is  even  recorded 
of  one  dentist,!  ^^  a  matter  worthy  of  note,  that  he  did  not  advertise 
himself. 

The  character  of  the  dental  profession,  the  methods  of  obtaining 
education  in  the  specialty,  and  its  general  progress  up  to  1835,  are 
well  shown  in  an  essay  by  Dr.  C  W.  Ballard,  of  New  York,  from 
which  the  following  extracts  are  made  :§ 

"Owing  to  the  absence  of  American  dental  literature,  and  the 
scarcity  and  expense  of  that  published  in  Europe,  it  became  a  matter 
of  necessity  that  those  who,  at  this  time,  studied  in  the  United  States, 
should  be  in  many  of  the  more  scientific  points  relating  to  the  pro- 
fession, most  sadly  deficient.  This  was  a  difficulty  in  the  way  of 
dental  education,  which  could  be  overcome  only  by  rendering  dental 
works  more  plenty,  a  thing  more  easily  talked  about  than  accom- 
plished, as  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  though  the  evil  was  known 


*  Amovican  Journal  of  Dentiil  Science,  2d  Series,  vol.  ii.  p.  08. 

t  Let'tures  on  the  Natural  History  of  the  Teeth,  by  L.  S.  Parmly,  London, 
1820,  p.  99. 

X  Dr.  John  Randall,  of  Boston.  See  Harris's  Dictionary  of  Dental  Science, 
edition  of  1849,  p.  038. 

§  Auierican  .Journal  of  Dental  Science,  vo\  ii.  p.  59. 


DENTAL    EDUCATION.  239 

and  felt,  it  was  some  years  before  tlie  remedy  was  commenced,  and 
many  more  had  elapsed  before  it  could  be  said  to  be  fairly  under 
weigh.  During  this  time  the  number  of  dentists  practicing  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  country  was  fast  increasing;  by  the  year  1825, 
they  numbered  a  little  over  two  hundred  ;  (*) — of  these  ....  the 
majority  had  commenced  practic-ing  without  any  claim  upon  the 
public  beyond  that  of  having  purchased  a  few  secrets  from  sucli  as 
possessed  them,  and  were  willing  to  sell,  depending  u]K)n  these  secrets, 
and  their  own  ingenuity  and  boldness,  to  help  them  into  practice  and 
out  of  difficulties. 

"As  late  as  the  year  1830,  the  means  of  obtaining  information  upon 
such  subjects  as  related  to  dental  surgery,  were  extremely  limited. 
It  is  true  books  were  beginning  to  be  published,  but  they  were  mostly 
small,  popular  works,  and  generally  added  more  to  the  reputation  of 
the  authors  than  to  the  available  literature  of  the  profession.  They 
were,  however,  productive  of  much  good,  by  drawing  the  attention 
of  the  public  to  the  importance  of  preserving  the  teeth. 

*'In  all  of  our  large  cities  were  to  be  found  some  few  men  who, 
having  possessed  themselves  of  what  might  be  called  the  theory  of 
dental  science,  had  put  it  in  practice,  and  by  much  energy,  persever- 
ance, and  skill,  were  enabled  to  add  greatly  to  the  information  which 
had  been  imparted  to  the-n  by  their  instructors.  These  men  became 
teachers  in  their  turn,  but  like  those  who  had  trodden  the  ground  be- 
fore them,  their  time  and  skill  were  needed  and  demanded  by  their 
patients,  and  the  number  of  students  to  whom  they  could  give  proper 
attention  was  by  far  too  small  to  supply  the  demand  for  dentists,  and 
a  host  of  pretenders  rushed  in  to  supply  the  deficiency.  Dental  sur- 
gery may  with  truth  be  said  to  have  been  at  this  time  at  its  lowest  ebb. 

"The  various  methods  iji  vogue,  at  this  time,  of  obtaining  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  profession,  or  of  founding  claims  upon  the  ])ublic  as 
dental  surgeons,  may,  together  with  the  dentists  thus  constituted,  be 
set  down  in  three  distinct  classes. 

"  Class ^rs<  consisted  of  those  whose  ignorance  was  their  only  excuse 
for  the  injuries  they  inflicted  upon  their  patients,  and  ultimately  their 
profession,  as  also  of  those  who,  having  ])urchased  or  traded  for  a 


*In  1830  there  were,  in  Cincinnati,  only  four  dentists.  In  1848  this  nuniher 
had  inoreiised  to  forty-two.  In  tlio  lnttiT  year,  in  Boston,  there  were  seventy 
dentists.  "  Lowell,  Worcester,  Springfield  and  miuiy  other  large  towns  (in  Mas- 
sacliusetts,  in  1848)  have  each  from  Ave  to  ten  practicing  dentists."  New  York 
Dental  Recorder,  vol.  ii.  p.  234.  See  Table  of  Dental  Census,  for  1850,  'GO,  and 
'70,"  at  the  end  of  this  chajiter. 


240  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

seoret  or  two,  depended  upon  hold-faced  and  unblushing  im|)udence 
for  their  success.  .  .  .  Such  men  could  only  stand  high  in  their 
own  estimation  by  dragging  the  profession  down  to  their  level.  .  .  . 
Dentists,  to  this  day,  suffer  to  some  extent  from  the  odium  brought 
upon  their  calling  by  the  acts  of  these  men.  Dentists  of  this  class 
knew  little  and  cared  less  about  the  duties  devolving  upon  them,  and 
yet  they  were  always  ready  to  receive  pupils  and  instruct  them  in 
the  secrets  and  mysteries  of  dental  science,  provided  they  were  well 
paid  for  it.  The  fees  exacted  in  these  cases  varied  from  five  dollars 
to  one  thousand.  .  .  .  The  length  of  time  occupied  by  these  in- 
itiatory proceedings  depended  very  much  upoii  the  ability  of  the  stu- 
dent and  the  ignorance  of  the  teacher.  It  was  generally  conceded 
by  these  dentists,  that  the  shorter  the  time  wasted  in  this  manner  the 
better  for  all  parties. 

"The  second  class  may  be  considered  as  consisting  of  those  dentists 
who,  having  obtained  as  great  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  and 
practice  of  dental  surgery  as  their  time,  means,  or  opportunities 
would  allow,  came  at  once  to  the  conclusion  that  so  long  as  they  did 
the  best  they  knew^  how  for  their  ])atients,  and  comported  themselves 
in  other  respects  as  became  good  (iitizens,  they  had  done  their  whole 
duty.  .  .  .  \\'itli  these  may  be  included  those  who  commenced  prac- 
tice with  little  or  no  education,  and  were  compelled,  in  order  to  com- 
pete with  those  around  them,  to  add,  by  every  means  in  their  power, 
to  the  knowledge  and  exj)erience.that  their  j)ractice  was  daily  giving 
them.  ^Many  of  these  men  eventually  became,  to  a  certain  extent, 
good  practitioners;  but  of  the  best  of  them  it  would  be  difficult  to 
say  whether  the  good  or  the  evil  which  they  had  done  in  their  day 
])reponderated.  Dentists  of  the  second  class  were  much  better  ac- 
cpiainted  with  their  professional  duties  than  those  first  described ;  and 
very  many  of  them  excelled  in  that  branch  of  the  practice  known  as 
mechanical  dentistry;  and,  in  justice  to  them,  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that,  at  the  time  of  which  we  are  writing,  me(;hanical  dentistry 
was  considered,  by  a  majority  of  the  profession,  to  be  by  far  the  most 
important  part  of  dental  practice.  .  .  . 

"Dentists  of  the  third  class,  although  numerically  less  than  either 
of  the  other  classes,  had,*is  a  result  of  their  course  of  practice  and 
deportment  generally,  acquired  far  more  rej)utation  and  influence. 
....  These  few  men  seemed,  from  the  outset,  to  have  been  im- 
pressed .with  the  belief  that  the  resources  of  the  science  were  by  no 
means  developed — that  dental  surgery  held  a  position  far  beneath 
that  to  which  it  was  entitled —  ....  and  that,  as  all  these  evils 


DENTAL    EDUCATION.  241 

onukl  and  should  be  remedied,  it  was  tlieir  duty  to  devote  a  portion 
of  their  time  and  energies  to  the  work.*  Unquestionably,  the  first 
step  they  could  take  was  to  improve  themselves;  to  become  thor- 
oughly acquainted  witli  dental  surgery  as  it  was  then  practiced  in  this 
country  and  in  Europe;  to  carefully  sift  tiie  good  from  the  bad;  to 
give  truths  a  juore  prominent  position,  and  to  expunge  all  errors. 
This  required  years  to  accomplish.  .  .  .  The  next  thing  to  be 
done,  was  to  make  the  })rofession  acquainted  with  the  results  of  their 
labors.  Consequently,  dental  literature  of  an  improved  character 
began  to  make  its  appearance. 

"  This  change  at  once  advanced  the  profession.  Many  of  the  dealers 
in  secrets  lost  immediately  a  most  important  part  of  their  traffic; 
they  soon  had  very  few  secrets  to  sell,  and  a  still  smaller  number  of 
purchasers.  Consecpicntly  they  were  obliged  either  to  give  up  wholly 
the  practice  of  dentistry,  or  to  confine  their  attention  to  it  to  a  degree 
such  as  nothing  short  of  a  prospect  of  losing  their  means  of  support 
could  ever  have  compelled  them.  This  was  a  great  gain  of  itself; 
but  much  more  was  to  be  done.  The  few  had  presented  to  the  pro- 
fession their  many  facts;  but  a  vast  amount  of  valuable  information 
was  still  treasured  up  by  those  who,  from  their  ingenuity  or  expe- 
rience, had  become  possessed  of  it.  Every  practitioner  of  standing 
had  some  theory  or  fact  proper  to  add  to  the  general  fund." 

This  graphic  narrative  of  Dr.  Ballard's  brings  the  subject  up  to 
the  time  of  the  first  great  change  in  dentistry, — the  revolution  in 
the  comparative  importance  of  the  two  great  branches,  operative  and 
mechanical.  Hitherto  the  latter  had  held  much  the  more  advanced 
position.  Inventive  genius  and  mechanical  ingenuity  had  far  out- 
stripped theory, — so  far,  that  they  were  compelled  to  pause  until 
their  slower  compeer  should  afford  them  a  base  for  further  excursions.  • 
Thus  dentists  had  time  (and  occ;ision)  to  review  the  past,  from  which 
to  gather  new  facts  for  the  future;  and  the  most  prominent  ways  to 
improvement  appeared  in  two  directions  :— one,  a  more  liberal  and 
thorough  interchange  of  opinion  and  experience,— the  other,  an 
advanced  ground  for  the  -theory  of  practice. 

The  first  of  these  appears  to  have  been  met,  for  the  time,  by  the 
establishment  of  the  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  in  1839. 
Though  somewhat  late,  this  journal  appeared  before  men  eager  to 
receive  and  impart,  through  its  pages,  that  which  they  could  give  or 

*  Dr.  Ballard  gives  the  relative  proportions  of  tln-se  three  clii~ses  as,  otic-half 
for  the  first,  three-eighths  for  the  second,  and  one-eighth  for  the  third. 

17 


242  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

were  desirous  of  obtaining.  Books,  too,  began  to  be  more  eirou- 
lated  and  read  tlian  formerly.  These,  though  mostly  ])opular  trea- 
tises, as  I)r.  Italian!  remarks,  were  entitled  to  considerably  more 
credit  as  i)rofessional  educators  than  he  gives  them.  They  svere 
written  much  more  nearly  up  to  the  standard  of  the  best  professional 
practice  and  theories  of  the  day,  tiian  are  works  of  tiie  same  class  at 
present ;  and  were,  it  is  safe  to  say,  read  quite  as  much  by  dentists 
as  by  that  public  for  which  they  were  professedly  intended. 

Tlie  second  desideratum  was  almost  immediately  met  and  filled, 
by  that  (to  many)  new  idea  of  prevention  of  disease  which  was  des- 
tined so  completely  to  revolutionize  the  dental  theory  and  practice. 
It  was  not  new,  however,  to  all.  As  far  back  as  1800,  Hudson  and 
Gardette  had  strenuously  advocated  it ;  and  had  been  joined  very 
soon  by  many  of  those  whose  names  are  now  historic  almost  entirely 
from  their  connection  with  the  subject. 

These  considerations  awakened  to  active  vitality  energies  which 
had  long  lain  dormant.  Nothing  so  prompts  to  effort  as  apprecia- 
tion. Men  like  Hayden,  Harris,  Spooner,  and  others  could  now 
work  with  bright  hopes  of  success,  to  elevate  the  profession ;  and 
work  they  did. 

The  great  needs  lay,  again,  in  two  directions:  facilities  for  teach- 
ing the  truths  already  evolved,  and  associated  effort.  Dentistrj' 
was  expanding  too  rapidly  to  depend  longer  on  the  isolated  and 
private  tuition  of  its  disciples.  On  this  subject  Dr.  C.  A.  Harris 
said,*  "We  should  furnish  the  necessary  facilities  for  those  who 
may  design  pi'acticing  the  art,  to  qualify  themselves  properly  for  its 
duties.  Dentistry  should  be  as  much  a  matter  of  public  instruction 
as  medicine  or  surgery;  and  to  me  it  has  been  a  matter  of  much 
surprise,  that  the  efforts  of  the  better  informed  of  the  profession 
have  not  been  dire(;ted  to  the  establishment  of  an  institution  for  this 
I)urpose.  An  institution  of  this  kind  would  not  only  redound  t<> 
the  credit  of  the  whole  profession,  but  it  would  be  instrumental  of 
much  general  good.  Its  influence  could  not  be  otherwise  than  salu- 
tary, as  it  would  have  a  tendency  to  driv«e  from  the  ranks  of  the 
profession  ignorant  pretenders,  and  substitute  in  their  places  men 
that  would  be  qualified  to  practice  with  credit  to  themselves,  and  to 
the  benefit  of  their  patients.  ]\Ien  of  genius  and  education  would 
be  more  frequently  induced  to  enter  it,  for  then  none  except  com- 
petent persons  would  be  recognized  as  its  members.     That  a  college 

*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  1st  Series,  vol.  i.  p.  57. 


DENTAL    EDUCATION.  243 

for  tlie  education  of  parsons  for  the  profession  might  be  gotten  up, 
and  that  it  would  be  well  sustained,  I  think  is  more  than  probable, 
for  if  a  school  of  this  kind  was  in  operation,  it  would  be  expected  of 
dental  practitioners  that  they  should  be  educated  in  it,  or,  at  least, 
those  who  should  sui)sequently  enter  the  profession.  The  same  object 
might  be  accomplished  by  the  establishing  of  professorships  of  den- 
tistry in  the  medical  schools.  All  the  branches  necessary  to  a  dental 
education  might  be  taught  ;  and  should  the  profession  not  be  dis- 
posed to  establish  a  school  for  their  own  exclusive  benefit,  it  is  to  be 
hoped  the  importance  of  the  subject  may  be  soon  so  felt  as  to  induce 
the  medical  institutions  of  the  country  to  take  it  up,  and  furnish  the 
necessary  facilities  for  the  obtaining  of  as  thorough  an  education  in 
this  as  in  their  own  immediate  profession." 

And  again,  in  his  opening  address  to  the  first  class  of  the  Balti- 
more Dental  College,*  ''  Of  the  qualifications  necessary  to  be  pos- 
sessed by  a  dental  practitioner,  and  the  time  required  for  their 
acquisition,  few  seem  to  be  aware.  On  this  subject  an  erroneous 
opinion  seems  [)retty  generally  to  prevail.  A  little  mechanical  tact, 
or  dexterity,  is  thought  by  some  to  be  all  that  is  requisite  to  a  prac- 
titioner of  dental  surgery,  and  that  this  could  be  obtained  in,  at 
most,  a  few  weeks.  The  prevalence  of  this  belief  has  given  counte- 
nance to  the  assumption  of  the  profession  by  individuals  totally 
disqualified  to  take  upon  themselves  the  exercise  of  its  complicated 
and  difficult  duties.  But  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  day  is  not  remote 
when  it  will  be  required  of  those  to  whom  this  department  of  sur- 
gery shall  be  entrusted,  to  be  educated  men,  and  well  instructed  in 
its  theoretical  and  practical  principles. 

"  Elevate  the  standard  of  the  qualifications  of  the  dental  surgeon 
to  a  level  with  those  of  the  medical  practitioner,  and  the  results  of 
his  practice  will  always  be  beneficial,  which  at  present  are  frequently 
the  reverse.  Require  of  the  practitioner  of  dental  surgery  to  be 
educated  in  the  collateral  sciences  of  anatomy  and  j)hysiology,  sur- 
gery, pathology,  and  therapeutics,  and  the  sphere  of  his  usefulness 
and  his  respectability  will  be  increased.  Require  of  him  to  be  thus 
qualified,  and  he  will  be  able  to  contribute  to  the  advancement  and 
dignity  of  his  calling,  and  by  a  zealous  devotion  to  it  he  will  soon 
arrive  at  an  excellence  to  which  heretofore  but  few,  comparatively, 
have  attained,  and  enjoy  the  high  gratification  of  knowing  that  lu' 
is  a  benefactor  of  his  fellows." 


*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  1st  Serit-s,  vol.  i.  p.  190. 


'244  HISTOKY    OF   AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

Under  the  spur  of  such  ideas  as  tliese  was  instituted  the  Baltimore 
Colletie  of  Dental  Surgery.  Regarded  at  first  as  only  an  experiment, 
great  anxiety  Mas  felt  by  its  jirojeetors  lest,  through  any  false  position 
taken,  they  should  endanger  its  success.  But  so  confident  were  they 
of  the  correctness  of  their  own  views  of  the  necessities  of  dental  edu- 
cation that  they  took  ground  so  advanced  as  not  only  to  be  beyond  the 
experience  of  fifty  years,  but  also  to  cause  many  fears  among  others 
as  to  the  permanency  of  the  institution.  "Conscious  that  its  claims 
to  respectability  and  usefulness  will  depend  upon  the  manner  in  which 
they  shall  discharge  their  duties,  it  will  be  their  constant  endeavor 
to  impart  not  only  correct  but  thorough  tlieoretical  and  practical 
information  ;  persuaded  that  without  this  it  is  impossible  for  any 
to  practice  the  art  with  credit  to  themselves  or  benefit  to  their  employ- 
ers, they  are  resolved  to  admit  none  to  the  honors  of  the  institution 
except  such  as  possess  it.  In  short,  they  are  determined  that  no 
reproach  shall  rest  upon  them  for  fixing  a  standard  of  qualification 
that  shall  not  at  once  be  respectable,  and  entitle  those  coming  up  to 
it  to  the  confiden^e  of  an  enlightened  community."* 

The  establishment  of  a  dental  school  provided,  in  a  measure,  and 
in  principle,  for  the  future  of  the  profession ;  but  other  agents  were 
needed  for  its  immediate  relief  from  the  crowds  of  errors  which  be- 
sieged it.  Associated  effort,  as  has  been  seen,  was  the  measure  pro- 
posed for  this  purpose;  and  the  organization  of  the  American  Society 
of  Dental  Surgeons,  and,  shortly  afterward,  of  other  associations, 
proved  eminently  successful  in  this  direction. 

These  great  changes — for  the  better — in  dentistry,  occurring  in 
such  rapid  succession,  and  at  once  compelling  such  radical  improve- 
ment as  they  did,  are  remarkable.  It  is  believed  that  in  the  history 
of  no  other  profession  can  such  a  great  single  stride  forward  be 
evidenced.  So  thoroughly  were  the  projectors  of  these  revolutionary 
agents  satisfied  with  their  success,  that  they,  as  it  were,  breathed  the 
sigh  of  gratified  anii)ition,  and,  strange  to  say,  fell  back  into  a  supine 
position.  The  work  of  further  advance  seems  to  have  been  not  for 
them.  Newer,  and  hitherto  quiet,  agents,  filled  the  van  of  progress. 
It  is  true  that  the  originators  of  the  successful  enterprises  were,  at 
the  moment  of  their  triumph,  already  old  men,  and  becoming  fast 
unfitted  for  energetic  effort. 

And  now  began  to  appear  a  list  of  names  before  publicly  unknown, 
some  of  whom  carried  the  ideas  evolved  by  their  seniors  to  an  extent 

*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  1st  Series,  vol.  i.  p.  209. 


DENTAL    EDUCATION.  245 

beyond  any  the  latter  had  held.  But  a  few  years  after  the  establish- 
ment of  dental  schools, — even  while  those  institutions  were  yet  in 
their  nonage, — it  was  held  that  the  system  of  a  separate  degree  for 
dental  practitioners  was  radically  wrong.  The  Rev.  B.  P.  Aydelott, 
President  of  the  Board  of  Trustees  of  the  Ohio  College  of  Dentistry, 
at  its  opening  in  1845,  made  use  of  the  following  remarks:  "We 
believe  that  the  rightful  position  of  tlic  dentist  is  not  generally  un- 
derstood, and,  consequently,  his  character  not  duly  appreciated  by 
the  public.  Even  his  fellow-laborers  do  not,  in  this  respect,  always 
do  him  justice.  His  must  be  regarded  as  one  branch  of  the  healing 
art.  He  is  therefore  a  medical  practitioner.  This  is  exactly  his 
position  ;  to  this  rank,  and  nothing  less,  is  he  most  rightfully  entitled. 
....  Permit  us  here,  briefly,  to  point  out  one  good  consequence 
which  will  be  likely  to  result  to  the  science  and  practice  of  dentistry, 
when  every  dentist  regards  liimself,  and  is  regarded  by  the  public, 
as  a  member  of  the  medical  profession.  He  must  in  this  case  see 
more  clearly  the  propriety  and  importance  of  goiug  through  a  full 
course  of  medical  study.  ...  In  this  way  only  can  he  discern  and 
duly  appreciate  the  multitudinous  and  powerful,  and  often  subtle, 
influences,  as  cause  and  etfect  between  the  diseases  with  which  he  has 
to  do,  and  those  affecting  the  whole  or  other  parts  of  the  system. 
....  When  dentists  generally  are  thus  qualified,  they  cannot  fail 
to  assume  their  rightful  rank,  as  professional  meu,  before  the 
public."* 

Some  went  even  further,  and  denounced  the  deutal  college  as 
founded  on  erroneous  theory,  and  ineffectual  in  practice.  Said  Dr. 
John  Trenor,  in  1851,t  "  Under  the  plea  of  remedying  all  these 
evils,  what  are  termed  dental  colleges  have  been  recently  brought 
into  existence.  Conscious  of  the  wants  in  this  branch  of  the  medical 
profession,  and  of  the  obvious  inefficiency  of  a  large  number  of  those 
who  appear  in  the  capacity  of  its  practitioners,  and  a  belief  taken,  if 
not  altogether  for  granted,  certainly  without  sufficient  investigation, 
that  these  institutions  must  necessarily  remedy  the  deficiencies  so 
generally  felt  and  justly  complained  of,  some  of  the  members  of  the 
medical  profession  have  accorded  to  them  a  degree  of  countenance 
and  approbation  to  which  it  can  be  easily  shown  tiiat  they  are  by  no 
means  entitled.     They  come  before  the  public  with  such  confident 


*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Soienee,  1st  Series,  val.  vi.  p.  187. 
f  Kemurks  and  Kecommendutions  on  the  Professional  Education  of  Dentists. 
Pamphlet,  New  York. 


246  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN   DEXTISTKY. 

promises  and  plausible  ])retensions,  and,  as  at  present  constituted,  are 
so  decidedly  inefficient,  that  they  are  a  greater  drawback  to  improve- 
ment than  if  they  had  never  existed.  They  profess  to  remedy  an 
evil  which  they  most  effectually  and  glaringly  magnify.  They  hold 
out  the  idea  of  giving  a  complete  and  finished  course  of  instruction 
on  dentistry,  while  full  two-lhirds  of  what  should  be  taught,  and 
that  the  most  important,  too,  viz.,  all  the  instruction  which  every 
medical  school  inculcates  in  medicine  and  surgery,  it  does  not  enter 
into  their  arrangements,  nor  do  tiiey  possess  the  ability,  with  any  de- 
gree of  usefulness  or  benefit,  to  perform." 

Such  sweeping  denunciation  as  this,  from  its  very  nature,  was 
susceptible  of  instant  and  easy  refutation  ;  for  whatever  errors  were 
existent  in  the  plan  of  the  dental  college  or  had  crept  into  its  man- 
agement, they  were  certainly  not  of  so  gross  a  nature  as  to  merit  such 
charges.  But  it  was  not  so  easy  to  refute  other  arguments  advanced 
in  opposition  to  the  system,  or  to  stop  the  growth  of  a  similar  feeling 
which  was  beginning  to  be  apparent, — the  desire  for  recognition,  as 
professional  equals,  from  the  members  of  the  ])arent  branch,  general 
medicine.  However  incorrect  in  princi])le  this  desire  may  have 
been,  it  still  actuated  many  members  of  the  dental  calling.  They 
began  to  devise  means  of  affiliating,  or  in  some  manner  connecting, 
the  two  branches ;  forgetting  that  the  surest  and  speediest  way  of 
effecting  their  purpose  was  to  educate  themselves  to  a  level,  scien- 
tifically, with  the  others. 

But  the  clearer  minds  in  the  profession  saw  the  error,  and  avoided 
it  by  advocating  a  higher  grade  of  scientific  education  than  the 
dental  colleges  were  manifestly  evolving.  The  retrogression  of  these 
institutions  from  the  expressed  aspirations  and  intentions  of  their 
founders,  was  in  no  manner  more  clearly  shown  than  by  the  increasing 
importance  which  began  to  be  attached  to  the  more  mechanical  oper- 
ations and  manipulations  over  the  practical  application  of  the  great 
idea  of  Hudson, — that  of  the  prevention  of  disease  rather  than  its 
cure.  Long  before,  in  1841,  Dr.  Hayden  had  said  that  ''mechani- 
cal and  ojK'rative  dentistry"  was  "  not,  in  strictness,  the  indispensable 
requisite  qualification  of  a  dental  surgeon,"  while  acknowledging 
that  "  it  constitutes  an  essential  part  of  the  profession,  as  it  has 
hitherto  been,  and  as  it  is  at  present  generally  practiced."  Further, 
in  response  to  the  question,  "  What  rank  ought  we  to,  or  shall  we, 
assume?"  he  answered,  "Although  not  hitherto  recognized  as  being 
entitled  to  a  niche  in  the  temple  of  Esculapius,  we  assume  the  title 
and  claim  the  rights  and  privileges  of  being  the  studious,  diligent. 


DENTAL    EDUCATION.  247 

and  successful  cultivators  of  at  least  a  branch  of  that  important, 
noble,  and  only  divinely-sanctioned  science  that  was  ever  pursued 
and  cultivated  by  man, — the  science  of  medicine."* 

Forming  a  significant  conuuent  on  these  strongly  presented  and 
elevating  claims,  it  was  averred,  in  1851,  by  Dr.  Harris,  that  "  there 
is  a  general  tendency  evinced  by  dental  students  to  devote  extra  time 
to  the  practical  dej)artments  at  the  expense  of  the  regular  lectures, 
and  that  it  has  required  the  stringent  laws  of  the  institution,  and 
effort  on  the  part  of  the  faculty,  to  counteract  this  tendency."'!"  And 
again,  "  The  infirmary  and  mechanical  rooms  are  so  attractive,  that 
it  requires  all  the  talent  of  our  colleagues,  and  the  stringent  regula- 
tions of  the  school,  to  obtain  sufficient  consideration  for  the  medical 
branches.  The  habit  of  dentists,  such  as  dentists  have  been,  and 
for  the  most  part  yet  are,  is  to  undervalue  collateral  scientific  ac- 
quirements and  make  dentistry,  as  far  as  possible,  a  mechanical  art."| 
Dr.  James  Taylor,  also,  writes,  "  I  have  found  a  greater  disposition 
(on  the  part  of  the  students)  to  obtain  merely  mechanical  knowledge 
than  I  had  hoped  to  see.  .  .  .  The  first  session  we  had  over  twenty 
students ;  since  then,  classes  have  ranged  from  eight  to  fifteen.  The 
first  session  students  were  not  obliged  to  take  all  the  tickets,  subsequently 
we  have  allowed  none  bid  full-course  studeids,  and  hence  those  seek- 
ing only  mecJiunlcal  knowledge  were  shut  out.  Our  object  has  been 
more  to  advance  the  interests  of  the  profession  than  to  obtain  large 
classes."§ 

This  tendency  was  strongly  evidenced,  in  the  schools  as  above 
stated,  and  in  the  growing  ranks  of  tiie  graduates,  by  the  attention 
given  to  acquiring  manipulative  ability,  and  the  multiplying  of  appa- 
ratuses and  instrumental  devices  to  this  end;  for  it  is  certain  that 
the  wonderful  increase  in  number  and  variety  of  character  of  such 
appliances  is  solely  the  result  of  an  extraordinary  demand  for  them. 

Although  not  so  strongly  marked  twenty-five  years  ago  as  now, 
the  character  of  the  rising  practice  was  still  easy  to  be  deteriuined, 
and  propositions  for  averting  what  seemed  an  evil  to  many  of  tJic 
profession  were  everywhere  presented.  In  1842,  Dr.  Eleazor  Parndy 
had  spoken,  in  a  jneeting  of  the  American  Society  of  Dental  Sur- 
geons,||  as  follows:  "It  is  now  more  than  twenty  years  since  I  felt 
the  urgent  necessity  of  making  the  surgical  and  mechanical  branches 


*  American  Jovirnal  of  Dental  Science,  1st  Scries,  vol.  ii.  p.  1. 
t  Ibid.,  2d  Series,  vol    ii.  p.  71.  X  Ibid.,  vol.  i.  p.  560. 

2  Ibid.,  vol.  ii.  p.  71.  ||  Ibid.,  1st  Series,  vol.  iii.  p.  8. 


248  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DJINTISTRY. 

of  tlie  )>rofessi()n  distinct.  I  regard  them  as  being  just  as  different 
in  practice  as  tlie  task  of  the  skillful  surgeon  in  amputating  a  limb, 
from  that  of  the  artist  who,  in  the  exercise  of  his  mechanical  inge- 
luiity,  contrives  joints  and  springs,  which,  together  with  other  ad- 
mirable ajipliances,  constitute  an  artificial  one.  Besides,  I  have  never 
known,  with  a  single  exception,  any  one  individual  to  excel  greatly 
in  both  these  departments  of  our  art.  It  is  here,  as  in  Europe,  the 
practice  of  most  of  our  best  educated  dental  surgeons  to  employ 
mechanics  to  do  their  artificial  work,  who  never  see  the  patients, 
— a  practice  which  has  never  been  found  to  answer  in  all  cases  the 
valuable  purposes  contemplated.  .  .  .  Therefore,  while  on  the  one 
hand  I  would  persuade  our  well-educated  men  to  confine  their  prac- 
tice chiefly  to  operations  on  the  living  teeth,  for  the  good  of  the  pro- 
fession and  for  the  benefit  of  suffering  humanity,  I  would  as  earnestly 
dissuade  the  mechanical  dentists  from  all  attempts  at  operations  in 
the  surgical  department." 

Although  these  ideas  do  not  give  j^rominence  to  the  higher  ground 
of  prevention  of  disease  which  afterward  took  much  stronger  hold 
on  the  professional  mind  than  it  then  had,  and  while  Dr.  Parmly 
evidently  looked  upon  tooth-filling  as  the  summum  bonum  of  dentistry 
and  not  as  being  susceptible  of  classification  as  a  mechanical  oper- 
ation, yet  the  extract  is  important  as  showing  that  even  at  that  early 
day  there  was  recognized  an  incongruity  between  the  title  of  "dental 
surgeon"  and  the  amount  of  strictly  mechanical  work  which  that 
"surgeon"  was  called  upon  to  perform. 

But  as  the  problem  of  separation  of  these  branches  was  one  not 
easily — and  perhaps  even  impossible — to  be  solved,  it  was  never  to 
any  great  extent  advocated,  and,  though  occasionally  revived  by 
individuals  in  after-years,  w^as  generally  looked  upon  as  entirelv 
impracticable.  It  may  be  well,  however,  to  remember  that  in  all 
large  cities,  or  places  having  the  requisite  facilities,  the  question 
was  long  ago  virtually  settled,  as  Dr.  Parmly  indicates,  by  the  em- 
ployment of  specialists  for  most  of  what  is  known  as  "  artificial 
work." 

The  main  burden  of  the  swelling  cry  was,  that  dentists  were  being 
fully  educated  as  mechanics  and  tooth-fillers,  but  not  so  in  the  more 
scientific  and  theoretical  part  of  the  science  of  healing.  Principally 
on  this  account  was  denied  to  them  a  formal  recognition  of  educa- 
tional, scientific,  and  ])rofessional  equality  by  the  older  branch  of 
general  medicine.  The  New  York  Academy  of  Medicine,  in  1848, 
refused  to  admit  dental  practitioners  to  membership,  stating  grounds 


DENTAL    EDUCATION.  249 

purely  technical  as  reasons.*  And  although,  in  reviewing  this  de- 
cision, a  dentist  stated  that  "  No  man  can  practice  dental  surgery 
upon  scientific  principles  without  practicing  medicine  every  day  of 
his  life,"  and  added  that  "  its  principles  (those  of  dentistry)  can  only 
be  learned  by  the  study  of  the  principles  of  medicine  and  surgery, "t 
and  while  such  ideas  were  beginning  to  be  largely  held  in  the  younger 
profession, — yet  the  doctors  held  to  their  formerly  expressed  opinions 
on  the  subject. 

The  most  formidable  of  the  schemes  oflPered  to  counteract  the 
claimed  downward  tendency  of  dental  colleges  was  elaborated  by, 
and  found  its  most  strenuous  advocate  in,  Dr.  E.  B.  Gardette,  of 
Philadelphia,  himself  a  professor  in  one  of  the  colleges.  The  fol- 
lowing is  the  text  of  his  proposition,  as  reprinted  from  the  American 
Journal  of  Medical  Science :% 

"  On  the  Importance  of  Establishing  a  Lectureship  on  Dental  Surgery 
in  Medical  Colleges. 

"The  undersigned,  a  practicing  dentist  of  Philadelphia,  begs  leave 
res[)ectfullv  to  call  the  attention  of  the  trustees  and  medical  faculties 
of  the  medical  schools  of  the  United  States  to  the  propriety  and 
advantages  of  establishing  an  adjunct  professorship  to  the  chair  of 
surgery,  in  which  the  specialty  of  dental  surgery  may  be  taught  to 
the  medical  student  seeking  knowledge  in  your  institutions. 

"In  making  this  suggestion,  he  indulges  the  confident  belief  that 
the  existence  of  such  a  chair  would  be  no  less  useful  to  those  who 
may  be  compelled  to  practice  some  branch  of  dental  surgery,  as  part 
of  their  duties  in  general  surgery,  than  to  the  smaller  number  who 
may  determine  to  embrace  that  specialty  as  their  profession. 

"The  undersigned  would  offer  for  your  consideration  some  reflec- 
tions that  seem  to  render  this  proposal  consistent,  not  only  with  the 
wf.nts  of  the  student  of  medicine  and  the  public,  but  with  the  duty 
and  the  interests  of  the  medical  schools  which  may  act  upon  this  re- 
quest in  such  form  as  seems  most  proper  to  their  own  judgment. 

"It  will  scarcely  be  assumed  by  any  trustee,  and  still  less  by  any 
member  of  a  medical  faculty,  that  the  profession  of  the  dentist  or  its 
duties  are  less  important  to  maid<ind  than  any  other  of  the  specialties 
of  surgery,  whetlier  the  oculist,  the  aurist,  or  the  lithotomist;  and 
therefore  it  is  needless  to  consider  such  a  question  open  lor  debate, 


*  New  York  Dental  Recorder,  vol.  ii.  p.  236.  t  Ibid. 

X  Taken  from  the  American  Journal  of  Medical  Science,  April,  1851,— in  the 
American  Journal  of  Di-ntal  Science,  2d  Series,  vol.  i.  p.  395. 


250  HISTORY    OF    !\MERICAX    DENTISTRY. 

or  requiring  arguments  in  a  country,  especially,  where  the  services  of 
good  dentists  have  been  so  widely  and  universally  needed.  It  being 
granted,  then,  that  the  science  itself  is  of  equal  importance  with  the 
other  departments  of  surgery,  it  is  an  undeniable  truth  that,  whilst 
all  other  specialties  are  taught  and  included  in  the  professors! lips  of 
medical  schools  generally,  the  principles  and  practice  of  dental  sur- 
gery have  received  no  attention,  or  certainly  none  that  would  permit 
the  graduate  of  medicine  to  feel  that  he  was  qualified  for  the  simplest 
duty  of  the  dentist. 

"Such  a  state  of  things  was  perhaps  an  unavoidable  evil  when  men 
could  not  be  found  who  were  competent  to  teach  the  principles  of  our 
science,  and  when  there  was  need  of  a  comparatively  small  number 
of  dentists,  and  hence  no  such  aid  was  then  called  for  from  the  medi- 
cal colleges;  but  at  this  time  there  would  seem  to  be  required  about 
twenty-five  hundred  dentists,  more  or  less,  throughout  the  United 
States,  which  is  sufficiently  proved  by  the  fact  that  about  that  num- 
ber are  believed  to  be  engaged  in  the  practice  of  the  profession,  after 
some  fashion  or  other — good,  bad,  and  indifferent;  and  to  supjvly  an 
increasing  demand  for  Avell-educated  dental  surgeons,  as  well  as  to 
raise  the  standard  of  that  profession,  would  appear  to  be  a  matter  of 
common  interest. 

"  It  would  seem  an  act  of  inexplicable  unkindness  to  have  thus 
singled  out  the  profession  of  dentist  from  among  the  specialties  of 
surgery,  and  forced  it  into  an  attitude  of  independent  self-protection; 
but  a  gentleman  who  fulfills  the  duties  of  both  medical  practitioner 
and  dentist  with  such  distinguished  abilities  as  to  bean  honor  to  both 
professions,*  has  traced  truthfully  the  origin  of  the  neglect  of  which 
the  dentist  complains.  The  writer  quotes  from  a  valedictory  address 
to  the  graduating  class  of  the  Baltimore  College  of  Dental  Surgery, 
March,  1850,  when  speaking  of  the  early  periods  of  the  existence  of 
a  medical  faculty : 

"  'They  condemned,  witi)out  stint,  a  calling  they  knew  not  how  to 
practice,  and  a  practice  they  knew  not  how  to  imj)rove.  Such  of  the 
faculty  as  were  learned  in  their  profession  were  found  always  compe- 
tent and  fully  prepared  to  be  oculists,  aurists,  or  lithotomists,  or  to 
devote  themselves  to  any  other  branch  of  the  profession  which  their 
interest,  inclination,  or  talents  might  determine,  except  that  of  dental 
surgery.  Tiiis  branch  seemed  to  require  something  more  than  medi- 
cal knowledge;  it  required  great  mechanical  skill — an  education  of 

*  Dr.  S.  p.  HuUihen. 


DENTAL    EDUCATION.  251 

the  hand  as  well  as  of  the  head — a  kind  of  education  they  had  not 
received,  and  knew  not  where  to  acquire,  and  yet  affected  to  despise. 
The  necessities  of  the  community  cried  aloud  to  them  for  help — a 
help  which  they  could  not  bestow\  This  drov^e  many  sufferers  to 
seek  dental  aid  out  of  the  medical  |)rofession,  and  to  obtain  that  help 
which  mechanical  genius  alone  could  supply.  At  this. the  profession 
seemed  mortified  and  chagrined,  and  loudly  mocked  at  those  who 
dared  to  supply  their  delinrjuencies,  and  united  as  one  man  in  de- 
riding the  uneducated  dental  mechanic.  They  first  created  the  neces- 
sity for  an  empiric,  and  then  croaked  forth  their  withering  contempt 
on  the  creature  their  own  ignorance  had  made.' 

"Thus  has  dental  surgery  been  left  to  struggle  through  endless  im- 
pediments and  difficulties,  instead  of  being  regarded  as  a  link,  how^- 
ever  humble,  in  the  great  chain  of  medical  science,  which  should 
with  patriarciial  strength  and  harmony  foster  and  embrace  every 
branch  of  the  healing  art. 

"It  is  now  believed  that,  among  the  number  of  medical  students 
who  attend  each  of  the  schools,  there  are  many  who  would  gladly 
devote  themselves  to  the  specialty  of  dental  surgery,  and  it  is  from 
these,  and  at  the  early  age  at  which  they, generally  devote  themselves 
to  medical  studies,  that  good  dentists  could  be  formed  ;  they  should 
still  be  required  to  earn  and  receive  a  diploma  with  the  title  of  M.D., 
as  a  guarantee  of  fitness  to  practice,  and  a  claim  to  confidence  as 
dentist.  Even  among  the  number  that  annually  graduate,  either  to 
practice  medicine  generally,  or  linjiting  their  attendance  to  their  own 
families  and  dependents  at  the  South,  a  correct  knowledge  of  the 
theory  and  practice  of  dental  surgery,  such  as  might  be  derived  from 
a  course  of  lectures,  would  be  highly  valuable.  And  it  is  believed 
there  would  not  only  be  a  direct  increase  of  good  dentists,  but  a  de- 
sirable addition  to  the  number  of  those  who  should  be  competent  to 
determine  what  constitutes  a  good  dentist. 

"The  establishment  of  separate  schools  for  each  specialty  in  medical 
science  (and  why  should  there  not  be  for  the  oculist,  or  aurist,  as  well 
as  the  dentist?)  would  ajtpear  to  be  the  dismembering  of  a  great  family, 
thereby  lessening  its  infiuence  for  good,  a.s  well  its  that  power  which 
is  justly  derived  from  an  esprit  du  corps  subsisting  in  every  branch  of 
an  elevated  and  honorable  profession.  In  this  expression  of  opinion 
as  to  the  ultimate  tendency  of  dental  colleges,  the  undersigned  is  actu- 
ated by  no  unkind  or  invidious  feelings,  but,  on  the  contrary,  he  gives 
them  due  credit  for  the  efforts  they  have  made  and  are  making  to 
improve  the  profession ;  and  to  the  Baltimore  College  of  Dental  Sur- 


252  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

gen'  he  is  personally  grateful  for  acts  of  courtesy  and  kindness  toward 
himself,  and  to  the  meniorv  of  his  father. 

"The  educated  dentists  in  the  various  parts  of  the  United  States  are 
abundantly  numerous,  it  is  believed,  to  fulfill  such  duties  as  might  be 
assigned  them  in  each  of  our  medical  colleges.  The  students  who 
now  attend  the  dentid  schools  would,  in  this  event,  be  added  to  the 
number  of  matriculants  in  the  medical  classes  of  the  country,  and  the 
need  of  separate  institutions  would  cease. 

"Frequent  occiision  for  consultations  between  the  physician,  the 
surgeon,  and  the  dentist,  has  been  felt  by  almost  every  practitioner  of 
medicine,  as  a  necessary  consequence  of  the  connection  and  sympathy 
reciprocally  existing  between  the  teeth  and  many  serious  disturbances 
of  the  general  health  :  such  sympathies  would  naturally  seem  to  sug- 
gest the  mutual  dependence  between  the  ])hysician,  the  surgeon,  and 
the  dentist,  and  should  be  a  good  reason  for  some  similarity  and  sym- 
pathy in  their  modes  of  education.  The  benefits  from  such  a  state  of 
things  as  the  mind  can  readily  anticipate  would  not  rest  here ;  medi- 
cal men  would  sometimes,  no  doubt,  receive  important  aid  from  the 
dentist,  in  tracing  to  their  true  origin  many  diseases  of  the  head  and 
face  that  now  baffle  their  skill. 

"  Whatever  action  your  medical  faculty  or  board  of  trustees  may  see 
fit  to  take  in  reference  to  these  suggestions,  and  the  object  they  are 
designed  to  promote,  the  undersigned  may  at  least  respectfully  urge 
that  they  would  seem  to  demand  fair  and  kindly  consideration,  as 
involving  matters  of  deep  concern  to  the  community,  for  whose  safety 
and  advantage  all  medical  learning  is  sought,  and  medical  colleges 
instituted  and  fostered. — E.  B.  Gardette" 

In  reviewing  the  above,  Dr.  Chapin  A.  Harris  *  advanced,  as  the 
principal  argument  in  opposition,  the  impracticability  of  the  scheme ; 
saying,  in  substance,  that  there  was  not  room  for  the  addition  of 
another  chair  to  the  already  crowded  faculties  of  medical  colleges, 
without  cutting  off  from  the  amount  of  instruction  possible  from  them. 
He  also  claimed  that  the  proposition  was  made  at  an  "  unfortunate 
time," — the  dental  school  having  been  years  in  attaining  its  present 
position  of  })ermanence ;  all  the  labor  thus  spent  it  Avas  contemplated 
by  Dr.  Gardette  to  throw  away,  and  the  separate  dental  institutions 
to  be  abolished.  He  also  contended  that,  "  according  to  Dr.  Gardette's 
scheme,  all  the  medical  students  must  be  thoroughly  instructed  in 
dentistry.    In  the  first  place,  they  will  not  submit  to  any  such  thing ; 

*  American  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  2d  Series,  vol.  i.  p.  397. 


DENTAL    EDUCATION.  253 

in  the  next  place,  no  adjunrt  professor  could  so  instruct  them,  if  they 
would.  The  course  of  medical  studies  in  the  college  is  no'v  so  ex- 
tended, that,  with  all  possible  diligence,  students  cannot  find  time  to 
get  through  with  it  in  the  four  months'  session,  and  general  clamor  is 
demanding  an  extension  of  the  time.  How  will  they  find  time  for 
theoretical,  and  mechanical,  and  operative  dentistry?" 

On  the  whole,  Dr.  Harris  exhibited  much  more  acrimony  in  his 
treatment  of  Dr.  Gardette's  suggestion  than  was  at  all  usual  for  him. 
Also,  he  assumed  what  was  evidently  not  intendeil, — that  Dr.  Gar- 
dette  had  given  a  plan  to  be  followed,  instead  of,  as  was  the  case,  a 
suggestion  to  be  elaborated. 

Dr.  Townsend,  also,  in  the  following  number  of  the  American 
Journal  of  Dental  Science,  combated  Dr.  Gardette's  proposition  on 
grounds  generally  similar  to  those  advanced  by  Dr.  Harris. 

Dr.  C.  C.  A  Hen  *  supported  Dr.  Gardette,  saying,  among  other 
things,  "  The  degree  of  D.D.S.,  if  conferred  with  that  care  which 
should  always  be  exercised,  not  to  give  it  to  unworthy  candidates, 
must  always  be  an  honorable  one ;  but  we  doubt  if  it  would  be  prima 
facie  evidence  of  as  high  a  degree  of  merit  as  that  of  INI. D.  .  .  .  We 
should  be  glad  to  see  the  profession  of  medicine  a  unity,  and  all  its 
specialties  under  the  broad  seal  of  M.D.,  and  we  can  see  no  good 
reason  why  this  cannot  and  should  not  be  the  case." 

Dr.  B.  Wood,  of  Nashville,  advocated  a  scheme  somewhat  differing 
in  detail,  though  not  in  principle,  from  Dr.  Gardette's.  His  articles, 
as  published  in  the  periodicals  of  the  day,  are  too  long  for  entire 
insertion  here ;  but  as  they  contain  the  germ  of  a  movement  now  put 
in  practice  in  connection  with  three  of  our  universities,  they  will  be 
quoted  at  some  length  : 

"  It  is  not  the  design  of  this  communication  to  take  sides  in  the 
question  [of  education]  referred  to,  much  less  to  assume  a  hostile  atti- 
tude in  regard  to  either  of  the  systems  of  dental  education,  the  claims 
of  which  have  been  held  up  to  consideration.  Unquestionably  each 
is  good  so  far  as  it  goes.  If  all  our  medical  colleges  were  supplied 
with  lectureships  of  dental  surgery,  and,  at  tiie  same  time,  there  were 
a  dozen  special  schools  of  dentistry  prospering  throughout  the  country, 
there  would  certainly  be  little  cause  to  mourn  about  it !  Neverthe- 
less, viewing  lectureshii)s  as  proj^osed,  and  deiital  colleges  as  now 
organized,  in  the  light  of  complete  systems  of  dental  instruction,  either 
must  be  regarded,  we  think,  as  measurably  defective.     If  medical 

*  New  York  Dental  Rocorder,  vol.  v.  p.  242. 


254  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAN   DENTISTRY. 

schools,  including  the  branch  of  dental  surgery  in  their  curriculum, 
are  to  be  the  means  of  creating  practical  dentists,  there  slionld  be 
additional  means  for  this  purj)Ose,  such  at  least  as  dental  laboratories 
attached  to  such  schools  and  provided  with  demonstrators  of  operative 
and  mechanical  dentistry ;  these  should  be  attended  by  the  dental 
students  even  to  the  omission  of  some  of  the  less  important  medical 
branches;  or  the  deficiency  should  be  supplied  by  requiring  a  com- 
mensurate course  of  efficient  private  instruction.  .  ,  . 

"Impressed  with  the  force  of  objections  to  our  dental  colleges,  on 
the  score  of  incompleteness  in  the  department  relating  to  general 
medicine,  I  took  the  liberty,  upon  a  former  occasion,  to  suggest 
the  propriety  of  extending  the  term  and  range  ol'  their  instruction  so 
as  to  inchide  a  course  of  lectures  in  a  regular  medical  school.  The 
spirit  in  which  the  suggestion  was  noticed  in  a  quarter  which  might 
be  naturally  expected  to  reflect  the  sentiment  of  faculties  of  dental 
colleges,  seemed  to  indicate  that  to  press  the  subject  further  would  be 
not  only  unavailing,  but  obnoxious  to  those  having  control  of  these 
institutions.  .  .  .  Tliis  proj)osition  is  offered  upon  the  belief  that 
dental  surgery  is,  and  of  right  ought  to  b^,  a  department  of  general 
medicine;  that  a  knowledge  of  the  latter  is  the  true  basis  of  correct 
practice  in  the  former;  that  dental  practitioners  should  be  medical 
men,  created  from  and  belonging  to  the  regular  profession  ;  that  the 
student  in  this  specialty  must  be  in  reality  (though  not  of  necessity 
nominally)  a  doctor  of  general  medicine  before  he  can  be  truly  a 
doctor  of  dental  surgery;  and  that  a  course  of  collegiate  dental  edu- 
cation should  be  such  as  vbiiuiUy  io  entitle  him  to  the  honor  of  both. 

"Dental  surgery  is  generally  conceded  to  be  a  medical  science.  It 
is  so  styled  and  treated  of  by  the  most  eminent  in  our  profession. 
....  This  position  ....  has,  moreover,  been  too  strongly  forti- 
fied by  physiological  and  j)athologicxd  facts  and  indiciitions  to  admit 
of  question.  .  .  .  This  jK)sition  being  assumed,  it  leads  to  another, 
namely  : — That  a  knowlalge  of  medicine  is  necessary  in  the  prac- 
tice of  dental  surgery,  as  well  as  in  any  other  specialty.  This  po- 
sition also  admits  of  ample  confirmation.  .  .  .  No  one  will  deny 
that  in  the  practice  of  surgery,  shorn  of  the  Slental,'  a  knowl- 
edge of  medicine  Ls  indispensable.  It  is  a  settled  conviction  with 
medical  men  that  'no  one  can  ever  lay  just  claim  even  to  the 
title  of  surgeon,  far  less  hope  for  eminence  or  success,  unless  he  be 
equally  qualilied  to  assume  both  the  appellation  and  the  employ- 
ment of  the  ])hysician.'  And  if  dentid  surgery  is  entitled  to  or  is 
ever  to  aasume  the  rank  we  claim   for  it,  a  like  qualification  is  no 


DENTAL    EDUCATION.  255 

less  indispensable  on  the  part  of  its  practitioners.  Such  is  indeed 
the  prevailing  belief  of  the  best  informed  dentists  of  the  day,  what- 
ever system  of  education  they  have  chosen  to  advocate.  .  .  . 

"With  these  views  respecting  the  qualification  required  in  dental 
snrgery,  the  question  arises,  do  dental  colleges,  as  now  organized, 
aiford  an  adequate  preparation  for  its  practice  ?  Is  their  range  of 
medical  instruction  sufficient  for  the  creation  of  scientific  and  reliable 
pra(!titioners  in  this  specialty?  The  title  and  tenor  of  this  paper 
assume  the  negative.  Admitting  them  to  be  good  as  far  as  they 
go,  and  as  efficiently  conducted  as  may  be,  yet  their  requirements 
would  seem  to  be,  of  necessity,  inadequate  to  the  great  end  in 
view.  .  .  . 

"The  course  of  instruction  in  dental  colleges  being  admitted  to  be 
inadequate  to  the  wants  of  our  profession,  we  come  at  once  to  in- 
quire what  are  the  means  for  its  extension  and  improvement?  .... 
The  oidy  way   to  make  any  substantial  improvement  is  to  extend 
the  term  of  instruction.    ...    If  a  full  and   thorough  training  in 
operative  and   mechanical  dentistry  could    be  had  under  competent 
prece[)tors,  so  as  to  allow  the  whole  time  of  the  colleges  for  the  elu- 
cidation  of    theoretical  principles,  there  would  be  less  urgency  for 
this  ;  but  since  such  tuition  is  not  generally  accessible,  or,  if  it  were, 
is  not  required  by  these  institutions,  three  collegiate  courses  were 
certainly  none  too  much  to  insist  upon.     Moreover,  tliis  would  not 
be  more  than  equivalent  to  the  customary  term  of  study  in  medicine, 
which,  in  the  United  States,  is  uniformly  three  years ;  in  Europe  it 
is  at  least  one  or  two  years  longer,  while  at  the  same  time  the  pre- 
liminary requirements  are  higher,  the  branches  of  study  more  diver- 
sified, and  the  collegiate  sessions  longer.  .  .  .  The  extension  of  the 
term  of  dental  study,  so  as  to  occupy  tliree  years  and  include  three 
collegiate  courses,  could   l)e  done  either  by  prolonging  the  term  in 
dental  colleges,  or  requiring  a  j)reliminary  course  in  medicine.     In 
favor  of   the  latter  there  is  this  prominent   reason,  that   it  would 
afford   a  greater  amount  of    medical   information,  and  at  the  same 
time  allow  dental  schools  room  for  doing  better  justice  to  dentistry. 
....  The  imj)ortance  of  taking  a  general  survey  of  the  cardinal 
medical  branches,  before  the  mind  is  directed  to  special  details,  is  a 
consideration  of  moment.     It  appears  that  there  is  an  undue  tend- 
ency on  the  part  of  the  students  to  neglect  the  medical  and  theo- 
retical branches  taught  in  dental  colleges,  ....  which  fact  of  itself 
sufHciently  indicates  the  propriety  of  teaching  such  branches  in  a 
preliminary  course,  where  the  attention  would  not  be  divided.   .  .  . 


256  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

If  dentists  are  required  to  become  well  grounded  in  medicine,  at  the 
regular  colleges,  a  union  between  the  two  professions  is  at  once 
effected.  The  dismembered  parts  of  a  common  science  are  con- 
nected bv  a  natural  link,  lending  mutual  support  to  each  other,  and 
giving  unity  and  strength  to  the  whole.  .  .  . 

"Jt  has  been  recommended  by  the  American  Medical  Association 
to  examine  first-course  students,  and  give  them  certifi(!ates  of  pro- 
ficiencv,  etc.  Such  certificate  (which  could  be  regarded  as  an  honor 
equal  to  that  of  Bachelor  of  Medicine,  formerly  granted),  and  a  full 
course  in  a  dental  school,  being  prerequisite  to  graduation  in  the 
latter,  would  give  a  title  to  the  degree  of  D.D.S.,  beyond  dispute, 
which  being  thus  made  more  honorable  would  be  more  sought  after. 
....  It  is  vain  to  attempt  to  conceal  or  shuffle  over  the  great  and 
valid  objection  to  these  institutions,  arising  from  the  inadequacy  of 
their  ransre  of  instruction  considered  as  a  warrant  for  a  doctorate,  an 
objection  which  has  ever  been  felt,  and  which  must  eventuate  in 
their  overthrow  unless  means  be  adopted  for  its  removal."  * 

The  first  college  to  adopt  other  of  the  progressive  ideas  in  vogue 
than  an  increase  in  the  number  of  chairs,  was  the  Philadelphia,  which 
went  into  oi)eratiou  in  November,  1852,  one  of  its  requisites  for 
graduation  being  that  the  student  '*  must  have  studied  un<ler  a  pri- 
vate preceptor  at  least  two  years,  including  his  course  of  instruction 
in  the  college."!  This,  as  has  been  seen,  in  some  sort  partially 
accomplished  the  idea  of  Dr.  Wood.  All  the  colleges  gradually 
increased  the  number  of  their  chairs,  in  obedience  to  the  growing 
demand  for  higher  scientific  acquirements  in  dentistry. 

But  they  made  no  radical  step  in  the  direction  of  a  change.  As 
formerly,  they  turned  out  good  manipulators  but  poor  scientists.  At 
a  meeting  in  New  York  City,  September  Gth,  1859,  for  the  purpose 
of  forming  a  State  Dental  Association,  a  paper  was  read  from  Dr.  A. 
Westcott,  of  which  the  following  is  a  condensation,  forming  still 
another  plan  for  dental  education  : 

"  My  position  loas,  and  Ik,  that  a  certain  number  of  years'  practice 
as  a  dental  surgeon  should  render  one  eligible,  not  necessarily  to 
a  degree,  but  simply  to  an  examiiuiiion.  ...  I  believe  that  every 
dentid   college  should    make  practitioners,  who  are  in  good  moral 

standing,  and  have  practiced  years,  eligible  to  an  examination; 

and  if,  in  fad,  they  are  found  worthy  the  degree  of  doctor  of  dental 


*  Americfin  Journal  of  Di-ntal  .Science,  2(1  Series,  vol.  iii.  pp.  28  and  180. 
t  Ibid.,  p.  34,  note.  • 


DENTAL   EDUCATION.  257 

surgery,  it  should  be  awarded  tliem."*  This  plan,  intended  for 
practitioners  of  dentistry  who  were  without  degrees,  was  adopted  by 
and  is  now  in  force  under  the  New  York  State  Dental  Society,  which 
body  gives  the  degree  of  M.D.S.  (Master  of  Dental  Surgery). 

In  1864,  the  American  Dental  Association  passed  the  following 
resolution  :  "  Whereas,  In  the  opinion  of  the  American  Dental  Asso- 
ciation, no  less  than  two  years  of  pupilage  in  the  office  of  a  compe- 
tent dentist,  and  attendance  upon  two  full  courses  of  lectures  in  a 
dental  college,  is  necessary  to  qualify  a  student  to  practice  dentistry 
properly;  therefore  jRc.so/rec/,  That  practitioners  of  dentistry  be  re- 
quested not  to  take  students  for  a  less  term  than  two  years,  and 
under  no  consideration  unless  they  agree  to  attend  lectures  and 
graduate  from  a  dental  college  before  they  enter  upon  the  practice 
of  their  profession  ;  and  that  the  people  should  demand  of  all  those 
who  hereafter  enter  upon  the  practice  of  dentistry  that  they  shall 
hold  a  diploma  from  a  dental  college,  as  the  first  requisite  to  public 
confidence  and  patronage. "f  The  same  resolution  was  also  passed 
by  the  American  Dental  Convention,  at  Detroit,  in  that  year.J 

In  1865,  Dr.  J.  Smith  Dodge,  Jr.,  of  New  York,  published  a 
paper  §  in  which  he  advocated,  as  a  basis  for  the  then  forming  New 
York  College  of  Dentistry,  the  substitution  of  the  instruction  given 
by  the  medical  schools  for  the  establishment  of  chairs  on  medical 
branches  in  the  dental  school.  Said  he,  "  Let  the  trustees  of  the 
proposed  dental  college  select,  without  prejudice  or  favor,  the 
best  of  the  medical  schools,  and  approach  its  faculty  with  this 
proposal :  We  desire  to  appoint  the  gentlemen  who  hold  your 
professorships  of  anatomy,  physiology,  and  chemistry  to  the  same 
chairs  in  our  college;  they  will  instruct  and  examine  our  students, 
and  sign  our  diplomas.  We  do  not,  however,  wish  them  to  repeat 
their  customary  lectures  and  demonstrations  at  our  rooms,  but  desire 
that  students  matriculated  with  us  may  purchase  the  tickets  of  these 
professors  and  their  demonstrators,  and  attend  their  instruction  at 
your  college,  precisely  as  if  they  had  matriculated  with  you.  And 
we  offer  to  reciprocate  these  privileges  with  regard  to  our  special 
branches.  .  .  .  One  word  regarding  tiie  course  of  study.  It  has 
certainly  been  too  lax.  No  man  can  be  made  a  good  dentist  by  at- 
tendins:  two  short  courses  of  lectures.  Let  us  imitate  frankly  the 
policy  of  the  medical  schools,  and  require  certificates  of  three  years' 


*  Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  i.  p.  133.  f  Ibid.,  vol.  vi.  p.  91. 

J  Ibid.,  p.  112.  ^  Ibid.,  vol.  vii.  p.  180. 

18 


258  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

practical  study,  including  two  courses  of  lectures,  and  let  there  be  no 
abatement  for  medical  graduates,  except  that  the  lectures  they  at- 
tended in  the  common  branches,  while  studying  medicine,  may  count 
in  place  of  the  corresponding  lectures  in  the  dental  course.  This  will 
exclude  some  hasty  aspirants  for  the  sheepskin,  but  it  will  mature 
those  who  undertake  it,  and  at  once  place  the  New  York  school  at 
the  head  of  dental  instruction,  for  all  institutions  of  learning  are 
universally  judged  by  the  severity  of  their  requirements." 

Dr.  J.  H.  McQuillen,  in  1867,  wrote  as  follows:* 

"  That  a  general  knowledge  of  sciences  may  be  acquired  by  per- 
sons of  studious  habits  outside  of  colleges,  with  the  aid  of  books, 
is,  beyond  a  question  of  doubt,  true.  Persons  of  studious  habits, 
however,  are  rather  in  the  minority  than  in  the  majority,  not  only 
in  the  world  at  large,  but  also  in  the  dental  profession.  A  general 
knowledge  of  anatomy,  physiology,  chemistry,  and  the  principles 
and  practice  of  medicine  and  surgery,  ...  is  not  sufficient  for 
the  practitioner  of  dentistry,  for  it  is  quite  as  indispensable  that 
he  should  be  as  thoroughly  acquainted  Avith  these  sciences  as  the 
medical  man." 

In  a  communication  read  before  the  Association  of  the  Colleg-es  of 
Dentistry,  in  18G6,t  Dr.  James  E.  Garretson  made  the  following 
remarks :  "  The  conviction  is  forced  upon  us  ...  .  that,  for  the 
support  of  the  doctorate  assumed  by  the  dentist,  the  greatest  change 
must  be  effected  in  the  matters  of  his  education  and  duties,  for  his 
present  scientific  attainments  and  sphere  of  duties  are  too  restricted; 
the  proofs  being — 

"  1st.  That  graduates  of  dental  colleges  manifest  to  the  world  their 
inability  to  treat  any  disease  outside  of  those  associated  with  a  few 
simple  semi-vital  organs,  which  diseases  require  for  treatment  much 
more  the  skill  of  a  mechanician  than  that  which  the  world  recognizes 
as  a  doctor's. 

"  2d.  That  their  attainments  are  undei'stood  by  the  community  to 
be  not  of  the  same  general  character  as  those  of  other  regular  special- 
ists, proven  by  the  Tact  that,  while  all  other  specialists  are  understood 
as  being  proper  doctors,  and  so  received  and  consulted,  the  dentist 
is  not."  '• 

The  principal  cause  for  the  last  proposition  of  Dr.  Garretson 
might  be  easily  shown  to  be,  not  so  much  the  want  of  scientific  at- 
tainments (though  this  was,  and  is,  sufficiently  well  marked),  as  the 

*  Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  viii.  p.  ol3.  f  Ibid.,  p.  186. 


DENTAL    EDUCATION.  259 

fact  of  their  bearing  the  new  and  strange  degree  of  D.D.S.,  a  title 
not  generally  undci'stood,  and  one  which  its  possessors  certainly  did 
little,  in  the  public  view  at  least,  to  render  scientifically  honored, 
valued,  or  known.  Although  the  dental  colleges  have  given  to  the 
profession  between  two  and  three  thousand  regular  graduates,  it  is 
certain  that  there  are  extremely  few  of  these  (who  have  not  also 
secured  the  degree  of  M.D.)  of  whom  it  may  be  said  that  they  are 
among  our  scientific  dentists.  It  is  a  fact  patent  to  every  observant 
person,  and  well  known  to  all  thinking  dentists,  that  the  very  great 
majority  of  the  scientifically  best  men  in  the  profession  are  graduates 
in  general  medicine.  There  are  some,  indeed,  of  high  professional 
attainments,  who  bear  no  degree  or  title ;  but  these  very  evidently 
belong  to  that  class  of  studious  persons  who,  as  Dr.  McQuillen  quite 
too  moderately  observed,  "are  rather  in  the  minority  than  in  the 
majority." 

The  present  Philadelphia  College,  upon  its  organization  in  1863, 
proposed  to  establish  a  higher  grade  of  instruction,  and  to  turn  out 
better  qualified  graduates,  than  had  before  been  attempted.  In  the 
words  of  Dr.  Garretson,  "  This  enlarged  sphere  consists  in  the  con- 
version of  the  present  specialty  into  that  of  oral  surgery.  To  this 
end,  the  student  entering  this  school  has  ofiTered  to  him  every  advan- 
tage in  the  way  of  the  stu<ly  of  general  surgery  that  is  presented  in 
any  university  or  college  in  the  country.  Dissections,  clinical  ob- 
servations, attendance  on  didactic  and  demonstrative  discourses,  are 
necessary  to  his  obtaining  the  highest  honors  of  the  school,  or  of  re- 
ceiving its  endorsement  as  an  oral  surgeon,  such  general  study  being 
accepted  as  absolutely  necessary  to  the  position  assumed.  Qualified, 
by  such  a  course  to  meet  the  emcrgcncie>^  of  general  surgical  practice, 
and  as  fully  qualified  according  to  his  ability  as  he  could  elsewhere 
become,  his  studies  continue  wnth  a  more  and  more  direct  applica- 
tion to  oral  diseases,  beginning  with  the  teeth  and  ending  with  the 
complexities  of  the  subject."  * 

These  changes,  strictly  adhered  to,  doubtless  increased  the  value 
of  the  school  in  question,  and  even  had  the  effect  to  bring  up  the 
other  schools  to  their  level  in  these  respects ;  and  to-day  such  insti- 
tutions (witTi  few  exceptions)  are  nearly  on  a  par  with  one  another 
as  to  the  character  of  their  curriculums,  all  claiming  equally  high 
grounds.  But  it  is  a  significant  fact  that,  in  spite  of  these  changes 
for  the  better,  they  have  not  raised  the  status  of  the  D.D.8.  in  either 


*  Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  viii.  p.  187. 


260  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAN   DENTISTRY. 

tlie  public  or  the  professional  view.  This  cannot  be  better  proved 
than  by  exiiibiting  more  recent  opinions  on  the  subject. 

Dr.  George  T.  Barker,  himself,  as  he  states,  an  earnest  advocate 
for  dental  colleges,  wrote  as  follows  in  1873:*  "If  asked  what  in 
my  judgment  would  best  advance  the  interests  of  dental  education, 
I  would  answer,  reorganize  and  consolidate  the  existing  dental  col- 
leges, establishing  as  their  successors  two  or  three  national  dental 
colleges,  with  faculties  selected  from  the  best  dental  teachers  in  the 
land,  so  situated  that  they  would  be  convenient  to  large  sections  of 
country,  and  not  liable  to  react  upon  each  other,  with  uniform  fees 
for  attendance  and  graduation,  and  such  endowment  that  the  greater 
portion  of  the  time  of  the  teachers  could  be  devoted  to  the  prepara- 
tion and  deliver}'  of  carefully-prepared  lectures.  In  thjs  way  the 
best  interests  of  the  student  and  practitioner  would  be  subserved ; 
positions  would  not  be  held  for  honor  merely,  as  is  noAV  the  case. 
.  .  .  Another  point  worthy  of  thought  is  the  necessity  for  a  pre- 
paratory course  for  dental  students  which  will  fit  them  more  per- 
fectly for  entrance  as  students  into  dental  colleges.  ...  By  attend- 
ance for  a  session  at  such  a  preparator}'  school,  the  student  would  be 
better  fitted  to  appropriate  the  material  subsequently  offered  in  col- 
leges. ...  In  conversation  with  graduates  and  students  for  the  past 
fifteen  years,  I  have  found  numbers  who  are  aware  of  and  recognize 
the  short-comings  of  dental  education  and  dental  colleges,  and  the 
conviction  has  been  generally  expressed  that  the  curriculum  of  study 
should  be  made  more  practical,  more  comprehensive  and  extended, 
and  more  in  accordance  with  modern  ideas  and  improvements." 

"Admitting  all  that  has  been  charged  (against  dental  colleges),  it 
is  simply  an  abuse,  which  in  no  wise  touches  the  principles  or  im- 
pairs the  system  upon  which  these  institutions  were  founded  ;  and 
we  may  rest  assured  that  whatever  errors  or  imperfections  may  now 
exist  will  be  speedily  corrected  by  a  wholesome  professional  senti- 
ment which  no  school  can  resist  and  live.  Our  colleges  imi^t  meet 
the  demands  of  the  age,  or  go  down  and  be  succeeded  by  others  in 
harmony  with  the  times,  and  measuring  up  to  all  the  duties  and  re- 
sponsibilities of  advanced  and  advancing  science." — Dr.  W.  W.  H. 
ThacMon,  1874.t  • 

"  Great  imjierfection  exists  in  the  education  of  dental  students, 
or,  at  least,  much  more  might  be  done  than  is  accomplished  by 
the  course  now  generally  pursued.     This  is  true  not  only  of  private 

*  Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  xv.  p.  25.  f  Ibid.,  vol.  xvi.  p.  271. 


DENTAL    EDUCATION.  261 

or  office  instruction,  but  of  that  given  in  the  schools.  ...  It 
is  hardly  necessary  to  refer  to  the  present  status  of  dental  educa- 
tion. It  is  quite  apparent  to  any  close  observer  that  it  is  very 
defective ;  its  imperfections  are  shown  upon  every  hand." — Dr.  J. 
Taft,  1874.* 

"  The  colleges  are  the  levelers  of  the  standard  of  the  profession. 
If  they  will  declare  for  a  studentship  of  three  years,  the  profession 
will  at  once  acquiesce  in  the  decree,  and  in  no  case  are  they  excusable 
for  granting  honorary  degrees,  except  where  eminence  has  been 
attained  by  long  years  of  toil  and  study." — Report  to  the  Michigan 
State  Dental  Society,  1875.t 

"On  close  inspection  into  the  workings  of  dental  colleges,  it  will 
be  perceived  that,  although  they  have  in  no  wise  deteriorated  in  the 
quality  or  retrograded  in  modes  of  teaching,  yet  the  charge  of  ineffi- 
ciency made  against  them  is  not  entirely  groundless,  for  they  hav^e 
been  remiss,  if  in  nothing  else,  in  failing  to  elevate  the  standard 
of  professional  education  proportionately  w^ith  the  wider  scope  and 
greater  range  which  dentistry  as  a  specialty  of  medicine  has  taken  in 
the  domain  of  science.  ...  A  serious  defect  in  the  teachings  of 
dental  colleges,  one  which  has  given  the  most  cause  for  dissatisfac- 
tion, arises  from  the  common  usage  they  practice  of  graduating  stu- 
dents on  attending  only  two  sessions;  which  is  tantamount  to  making 
dentists  of  them  in  eight  months  of  actual  methodical  studies ;  for  it 
is  a  well-known  fact  that  during  the  interim  between  the  lecture 
seasons  little  if  any  progress  is  made  by  them,  in  consequence  of  the 
unsystematic  and  desultory  manner  in  which  they  pursue  their  stud- 
ies. .  .  .  The  adoption  of  reformatory  measures  for  improving, 
and  keeping  up  the  standard  of,  dental  education,  is  no  less  a  duty 
which  dental  colleges  owe  the  profession,  than  it  is  a  matter  of  self- 
preservation.  For,  at  the  rate  they  are  now  manufacturing  an  infe- 
rior grade  of  dentists,  with  many  exceptions,  be  it  said,  the  profession 
at  no  distant  day  is  destined  to  become  overrun^ — Report  on  Dental 
Education  to  the  Amencan  Dental  Association,  1874.;J; 

Within  a  few  years  no  less  than  three  of  our  universities  have  so 
far  been  impressed  with  the  importance  of  the  subject  of  dental  edu- 
cation as  to  Constitute,  in  connection  with  their  medical  departments, 
dental  schools.     These  are,  in  the  order  of  their  appearance,  Har- 


*  Dental  Register  of  the  West,  vol.  xxviii.  p.  377. 

f  Ibid.,  vol.  xxix.  p.  181. 

X  Transactions  of  the  American  Dental  Association  for  1874,  p.  153. 


'162  HISTORY   OF    AMERICAX    DENTISTRY. 

vartl,  and  the  Micliigan  and  California  Universities.  The  last  of 
these  is  not  yet  in  working  order. 

Tiie  Harvard  Dental  School  ranks,  probably,  highest  of  any  in  the 
country,  alike  in  the  standard  of  qualifications  necessary  to  gradua- 
tion, the  extent  and  value  of  the  curriculum,  and  the  general  profes- 
sional estimation.  This  school  has,  very  lately,  taken  a  still  higher 
standpoint  for  the  education  of  its  students,  as  embodied  in  its  most 
recent  circular,  Avhich  will  be  found  in  the  chapter  on  "Dental  Col- 
leges." 

The  very  general  and  wide-spread  demand  for  higher  scientific 
culture  among  dental  practitioners  has  already  been  indicated  by  the 
previous  quotations  relating  to  dental,  colleges,  and  will  be  further 
shown,  as  to  the  general  question,  as  follows : 

"  The  community  is  learning  to  appreciate  the  advantages  of 
special  training,  and  naturally  seeks  advice  from  those  who  have  de- 
voted themselves  to  the  study  of  the  particular  derangements  from 
which  it  is  suffering;  and,  if  we  read  aright  the  signs  of  the  times, 
it  is  also  being  rapidly  educated  into  an  appreciation  of  the  necessity 
of  a  scientific  basis  for  medical  practice  of  whatever  character.  It 
will  demand,  ere  long,  that  he  who  aspires  in  any  way  to  the  title  or 
the  avocation  of  a  doctor  shall  base  his  claims  on  a  broad  and  com- 
prehensive medical  culture, — not  only  the  minute  and  accurate  obser- 
vation of  one  organ  or  one  class  of  diseases,  but  the  knowledge  and 
application  of  principles. 

"To  apply  these  facts  to  the  practice  of  dentistry  compels  the  con- 
clusion that  the  choice  must  be  made  by  its  practitioners  whether 
they  will  occupy  the  position  of  mechanics  or  artisans,  or  qualify 
themselves  to  be  medical  specialists.  To  refuse  to  see  that  great 
changes  are  at  hand,  as  concerns  the  standing  and  practice  of  the 
dental  profession,  is  simj)ly  to  shut  one's  eyes.  Of  no  one  thing  are 
we  more  fully  assured  than  that  the  dentistry  of  to-day  must  either 
advance  or  give  place;  to  attemi)t  to  confine  it  to  its  present  limits  is 
to  seek  to  control  that  progress  which  is  itself  evolution.  .  .  .  The 
establishment  of  a  lectureship  on  oral  surgery  in  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  the  recognition  by  Harvard  University  of  the  pro- 
priety of  associating  teachers  of  dentistry  with  its  faculties,  the 
quick  sale  of  the  entire  edition  of  a  volume  devoted  to  the  consider- 
ation of  diseases  of  the  teeth  and  parts  topographically  associated, 
— these  and  other  facts  of  like  import  are  the  signs  of  the  times. 
.  .  .  Let  those  now  entering  the  ranks  of  dentistry  take  warning. 
No  mechanical  skill,  however  scientific;  no  artistic  culture,  how- 


I 


DENTAL   EDUCATIOX.  2G-J 

ever  perfect,  will  in  the  near  future  rank  for  anything  more  than 
their  stamp.  Conniiendable,  honorable,  remunerative  they  may  be, 
but  tiiey  will  not  ]on<^  command  recognition  as  entitling  their  pos- 
sessor to  a  place  in  the  ranks  of  a  learned  profession." — Dr.  J.  W. 
White.'' 

"The  branch  of  dental  surgery  is  certainly  a  legitimate  specialty 
of  medicine.  It  should  assume  its  true  functions  in  the  healing:  art, 
and  its  relation  to  the  medical  profession  in  general.  Its  practical 
processes  should  be  controlled  by  the  principles  of  medical  science. 
Granting  this,  the  basic  elements  of  dental  practice  will  be  found  in 
a  thorough  study  of  the  whole  physical  organism. 

"A  satisfactory  acquaintance  with  these  ground  truths  should  here- 
after be  required  of  every  student  of  dental  science,  as  the  first  step 
to  bring  our  specialty  into  its  normal  relations  to  the  general  system 
from  which  it  is  a  legitimate  offshoot.  The  time  has  gone  by  when 
mere  mechanical  skill,  with  a  few  general  ideas,  picked  up  in  desul- 
tory miscellaneous  reading,  can  be  regarded  as  a  preparation  for  the 
serious  and  delicate  responsibilities  of  the  dental  practitioner.  He 
is  a  member  of  a  learned  profession,  to  whom  the  community  look 
up  with  increasing  respect  in  proportion  as  those  (jualities  develop. 
Knowledge,  which  is  power  in  every  other  branch  of  human  activity, 
is  no  less  such  in  that  branch  of  the  healing  art  which  takes  cogni- 
zance of  one  of  the  most  important  functions  of  the  human  economy. 
.  .  .  The  requirements  of  practice  are  daily  calling  for  a  more  ad- 
vanced and  scientific  intelligence,  and  they  who  minister  to  these 
demands  must  have  laid  up  in  their  mental  organization  the  natural 
and  acquired  abilities  to  grapple  with  the  ever  increasing  responsi- 
bilities."—D/-.  G.  W.  Keehj."^ 

"  It  is  true  that  many  shining  lights  in  the  dental  profession  did  not 
enjoy  the  preliminary  education  which  is  now  felt  to  be  an  essential 
to  the  highest  professional  excellence.  By  virtue  of  untiring  elfort 
and  great  natural  ability,  they  have  achieved  eminence  and  success 
in  spite  of  these  deficiencies.  Such  are  the  men  who,  enlightened  by 
experience,  would  have  the  future  members  of  the  profession  enter 
upon  its  duties  unburdened  and  untrammeled,  and  thoroughly  fur- 
nished with  all  mental  requisites  for  their  work.  Such  are  the  men 
who  are  earnestly  laboring  for  the  advancement  of  dental  science. 


*  Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  xiv.  p.  608. 

t  Report  on  "Dental  Education,"  American  Dental  Association,  Transactions 
of  1874,  p.  159. 


264  HISTORY    OF    AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

The  assumption  of  its  responsibilities  at  the  present  day,  without  far 
better  preparation  than  tlie  okier  practitioners  enjoyed,  argues  a  faikire 
to  comprehend  these  obligations,  or  a  criminal  indifference  to  them. 

"  The  requirements  of  dental  practice  are  constantly  enlarging,  and 
can  be  met  only  by  a  deeper  and  more  intelligent  study  of  funda- 
mental principles,  and  a  more  perfect  adaptation  of  them  in  practice. 
The  truths  of  the  profoundest  science  must  be  embodied  in  the  most 
intelligent  and  elaborate  processes  of  art.  Hence,  dental  surgery,  like 
every  other  profession,  demands  equal  facility  in  abstract  investiga- 
tion and  in  concrete  adaptation. 

"These  seemingly  diverse  tendencies  (the  ideal  and  practical)  must 
be  brought  into  harmonious  combination  if  we  would  bring  into  tke 
profession  minds  capable  of  achieving  its  highest  beneficent  results. 
In  the  discussions  of  a  dental  society  these  two  tendencies  of  mind 
will  find  special  admirers,  each  of  whom,  if  not  careful  to  control 
their  previous  impressions,  will  be  apt  to  depreciate  the  characteristics 
which  least  impress  their  minds.  .  .  .  Some  are  disposed  to  lay  too 
much  stress  on  profound  scientific  indoctrination,  supposing  that  the 
practical  elements  of  professional  character  will  develop  themselves, 
or,  at  least,  require  much  less  effort  at  culture ;  others  overvalue  prac- 
tical skill  at  tke  expense  of  fundamental  knowledge  of  principles. 
Botk  of  tliese  extreme  tendencies  are  to  be  corrected,  and  a  system  of 
professional  education  inaugurated  which  shall  harmonize  them  in 
the  highest  results.  Such  are  the  views  of  the  leading  minds  of  the 
profession." 

The  various  questions  before  the  profession  are  well  enumerated,  as 
follows,  in  the  report  from  which  the  above  is  extracted  : 

"  How  shall  dental  education  be  conducted  to  secure  the  essential 
points  previously  enumerated  ?  How  shall  minds  unfit  for  its  re- 
ception be  prevented  from  engaging  in  its  preparation  ?  How  shall 
dental  surgery  be  relieved  from  the  dead  weight  which  embarrasses 
it  in  common  with  other  learned  professions  ?  Shall  civil  authority 
be  called  upon  to  prescribe  professional  qualifications,  and  to  repel  by 
penal  enactments  the  intrusion  of  unworthy  practitioners,  or  shall  the 
profession  resolutely  refuse  fellowskip  with  any  but  the  worthy  and 
well  (qualified?  What  tests  of  ability,  talent,  and  character  shall  be 
prescribed  ?  AVhat  literary  and  scientific  culture  shall  be  demanded 
as  a  preliminary  to  professional  training?  Again,  dental  surgery 
being  but  a  specialty  of  medicine,  how  shall  the  fundamental  indoc- 
trination in  anatomy,  physiology,  pathology,  chemistry,  and  all  other 
branches  of  a  thorough  medical  education  be  secured?     Shall  the 


DENTAL    EDUCATION.  266 

e 

regular  medical  colleges  recognize  the  specialty  and  adapt  their  tuition 
to  its  requirements  ?  Or  shall  the  dental  college  call  to  its  aid  the 
medical  professor,  and  thus  supply  the  lack  of  basic  professional  cul- 
ture?"—X>r.  G.  W.  Keely* 

The  above  questions  have  each  received  much  attention  from  the 
general  profession;  and,  among  others,  that  relating  to  the  prelimi- 
nary qualifications  of  students  has  attracted  sufficient  notice  to  de- 
serve special  treatment  here.     The  following  are  to  this  point: 

"  We  should  always  bear  in  mind  that  in  the  proper  selection 
of  our  students  lies  the  power  of  the  elevation  of  our  profession. 
Thev  should  have  a  good  Eng-lish  education,  at  least.  Thev  should 
be  persons  of  a  fair  degree  of  natural  ability  and  mechanical  skill. 
Then  let  them  understand  that  they  have  entered  upon  no  short-cut, 
easy  way  to  a  livelihood,  merely,  but  that  they  should  avail  them- 
selves of  the  best  facilities  for  instruction." — Dr.  A.  W.  Freeman.'\ 

"  Whereas,  The  present  interests  of  the  dental  profession  require  a 
more  liberal  education  on  the  part  of  those  who  shall  henceforth 
enter  its  ranks;  and  ichereas,  It  is  notorious  that  the  instruction  im- 
parted to  students  by  private  preceptors  is  sadly  inadequate  even  to 
prepare  them  to  enter  upon  a  course  of  lectures  in  a  dental  college ; 
therefore 

"Resolved,  That  we,  as  members  of  the  American  Dental  Conven- 
tion, do  enter  our  most  solemn  protest  against  the  loose  method  so 
common  among  preceptors,  of  merely  allowing  students  to  remain  in 
the  laboratory  to  pick  up  what  little  knowledge  they  may. 

"Resolved,  That  it  is  the  belief  of  this  Society  that  no  person 
should  be  admitted  as  a  student  of  dentistry  who  is  not  fully  quali- 
fied mentally,  morally,  and  physically,  nor  for  a  less  term  than  three 
years,  and  that  a  thorough  course  of  instruction  should  be  enforced, 
and  a  sufficient  amount  of  time  devoted  by  the  preceptor  to  thor- 
oughly prepare  his  pu})il  to  enter  upon  a  course  of  lectures  in  a 
dental  college,  with  a  sure  foundation  already  laid,  upon  which  may 
be  built  a  professional  character  which  shall  make  him  an  ornament 
to  the  profession,  and  a  credit  as  well  to  his  preceptor  as  to  his  Alma 
Mater." — American  Dental  Convention,  1S68.| 

"  Resolved,  That  it  is  the  sense  of  this  Association  that  no  dental 


*  Report  on  "Dental  Education,"  American  Dental  Association,  Transactions 
of  1875,  p.  135. 

f  Missouri  Dental  Journal,  vol.  vii.  p.  351. 
X  Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  x.  p.  413. 


266  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAN   DENTISTRY. 

student  should  be  graduated  from  any  dental  college  without  at  least 
three  yeai-s'  instruction,  including  private  pupilage  and  college  in- 
struction ;  the  latter  should  in  no  case  embrace  less  than  two  full 
reaular  courses." — American  Dental  Association* 

"  Resolved,  That  this  Association  recommends  to  all  local  societies 
the  adoption  of  rules  prohibiting  their  members  from  taking  stu- 
dents for  a  less  period  tiian  three  years,  or  for  such  time  as  will  com- 
plete a  three  years'  pupilage." — American  Dental  Association. -\ 

*'  Perhaps  there  has  been  no  greater  obstacle  to  the  still  more  rapid 
advance  of  our  specialty,  or  in  the  failure  of  its  appreciative  recog- 
nition, than  the  too  prevalent  opinion  that  it  is  a  trade,  easily 
acquired  by  young  men  of  even  ordinary  capacity  in  a  short  space 
of  time.  Nor  can  this  impression  be  eradicated  from  the  minds  of 
the  people  until  we,  who  are  devoted  to  its  interest,  siiall  enforce 
strict  regulations  governing  dental  pupilage." — Dr.  C.  A.  Kitchcn.X 

Another  phase  of  the  more  recent  discussions  on  dental  education, 
as  indicated  by  the  last  three  questions  of  Dr.  Keely,  is,  the  claims 
of  dentistry  on  medicine.  This  matter  had  been  discussed  during 
many  years,  in  a  desultory  manner,  but  has  of  late  become  promi- 
nent to  a  degree  before  unknown.  Its  importance  is  very  generally 
admitted,  because  in  the  solution  of  it  evidently  lies  the  future  of, 
at  least,  American  dentistry  ;  and  is  easily  proved  by  the  fact  that 
those  highest  in  the  profession  are  most  actively  engaged  in  its  dis- 
cussion. Its  exhibition  will  be  attempted  by  a  series  of  extracts 
which  shall  present  the  main  points  advanced  and  in  issue. 

In  an  editorial  in  the  Dental  Cosmos,^  Dr.  J.  W.  White  happily 
illustrates  the  relative  positions  of  dentistry  and  medicine.  The  fol- 
lowing are  extracts  sufficient  to  show  his  position  : 

"A  correspondent,  renewing  his  subscription  to  the  Dental  Cosmos, 
writes,  'Try  and  let  us  have  more  dentistry  and  less  medicine.' 
'  Do  you  ever  read  the  Dental  Cosmos  f  said  one  physician  to  an- 
other, in  the  hearing  of  the  writer,  a  few  days  since.  '  No,'  was  the 
reply ;  '  it  takes  all  my  spare  time  to  keep  posted  in  medicine.'  In 
both  these  remarks  is  evinced  the  false  conception — shared,  unfor- 
tunately, 1)V  large  numbers  in  both  professions — that  there  is  a  di- 
viding line  so  separating  dentistry  from  medicine  that  the  practitioner 
of  either  division  may  afford  to  ignore  all  that  belongs  to  the  circle 
of  the  other.     The  mistake  of  both  alike  is  in  the  assumption  that  an 

*  Tr!vn.«nctions,  1875,  p.  14.  t  Ibid. 

\  TrMnsactioiis  Illinois  Stute  Dental  Society,  1874,  p.  28. 
2  Vol.  XV.  p.  78. 


DENTAL    EDUCATION.  267 

arbitrary  division  in  a  chain  of  physiological  and  pathological  action 
is  possible. 

"A  recent  writer  has  truthfully  remarked,  in  substance,  that  in  no 
department  of  medical  science  has  there  existed  such  a  hiatus  as 
yawns  between  the  professions  of  general  medicine  and  surgery  and 
that  of  dentistry, — a  missing  span  in  the  bridge  of  practice.  A 
patient,  trusting  a  complex  oral  disease  to  the  average  dentist,  fails 
because  of  the  absence  of  surgical  knowledge  and  skill ;  a})proach- 
ing  from  the  side  of  medicine,  he  fails  by  reason  of  a  corresponding 
deficiency,  as  common  and  as  unjustifiable,  in  the  general  medical 
practitioner.  .  .  .  The  community,  rapidly  attaining  the  ability  to 
recognize  and  the  readiness  to  question,  will  soon  be  dissatisfied  with 
a  practitioner,  general  or  special,  who  manifests  ignorance  of  this 
physiological  and  pathological  circle,  and  the  surgical  and  therapeutic 
indications. 

'*  It  does  not  follow  that  a  better  comprehension  of  these  relations 
and  their  significance  by  the  physician  will  necessitate  operative 
skill,  any  more  than  a  like  appreciation  by  the  dentist  will  relieve 
him  of  the  necessity  for  the  highest  manipulative  ability,  or  compel 
him  to  general  practice;  but  the  dentist  should  be  competent  and 
(|uick  to  diagnose  systemic  causes  of  local  lesions,  and  the  physician 
to  diagnose  the  local  causes  of  systemic  inharmony ;  and  the  profes- 
sions will  respect  each  the  other  as  they  recognize  that,  standing  on 
a  common  platform,  and  with  common  honors,  they  divide  into 
specialties  but  for  the  common  good,  and  that  greater  skill  may  be 
acquired  by  limiting  the  field  of  special  practice." 

In  support  of  Dr.  White's  statement,  as  far,  at  least,  as  regards  the 
position  of  medical  men,  the  following  is  quoted  from  an  editorial  in 
the  Philadelphia  Medical  77mes  (1875)  which  bore  reference  to  a  then 
recent  meeting  of  the  New  York  Odontological  Society.  Said  the 
Times,  "  Let  editors  write  as  they  may,  conventions  debate,  discuss 
or  pass  resolutions  as  they  please,  one  thing  is  certain :  that  D.D.S.  is 
the  badge  of  a  partial  culture,  and  that  the  medical  profession  never 
will  stultify  itself  by  recognizing  as  coequal  or  as  a  part  of  itself  a 
profession  to  the  highest  positions  in  whose  ranks  such  a  degree  is 
the  only  necessity  for  entrance.  It  may  do  very  well  for  gentlemen 
who  place  only  their  .medical  degrees  on  their  door-plates  before  the 
world  to  affirm  in  convention  that  they  prize  the  D.D.S.  above  the 
M.D.,  but  in  doing  so  they  only  make  themselves  singular  ;  they  do 
not  affect  or  reflect  the  general  public  opinion.  Those  gentlemen 
who  look  upon  dentistry  as  belonging  to  medicine  should  weigh  well 


268  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAN    DENTISTRY. 

tlie  words  of  Dr.  Garretson.  On  belialf  of  the  medical  profession, 
we  freely  admit  that  many,  it  may  be  all,  of  the  dentists  who  took 
part  in  the  debate  at  the  Odontologieal  Society,  far  exceed,  in  point 
of  general,  literary,  scientific,  and  even  in  special  medical  culture, 
many  of  our  physicians.  But  that  does  not  affect  the  question.  The 
medical  j)rofession  is  perfectly  willing  to  admit  dentists  to  its  frater- 
nity so  soon  as  they  become  doctors  of  medicine,  but  never  whilst 
they  are  merely  doctors  of  dentistry.  Really,  the  physicians  are,  in 
great  part,  indifferent  in  this  matter ;  but  just  so  soon  as  the  univer- 
sal law  of  the  medical  profession — that  the  specialist  shall  first  be  a 
general  practitioner,  and  shall  have  no  special  degree — is  complied 
with,  the  medical  profession  will  at  once  assimilate  this  great  new 
body." 

The  remarks  of  Dr.  Garretson  above  referred  to  were,  partly,  as 
follows  :  "  Most  decidedly  am  I,  for  one,  in  favor  of  the  abolishment 
of  the  degree  of  D.D.S.  One  degree  in  medicine  is  enough ;  the 
greater  covers  the  lesser,  and  includes  it.  A  doctor  in  medicine  pos- 
sesses a  title  quite  extensive  enough  in  its  signification  to  embrace 
any  specialty  that  he  may  elect  to  practice ;  besides,  it  affords  the 
only  possible  bond  of  brotherhood  with  the  members  of  the  profes- 
sion at  large.  We  may  be  specialists,  but  we  can  never  be  esteemed 
as  doctors,  in  the  desirable  fullness  of  the  term,  until  we  replace  the 
D.D.S.  with  the  M.D.  ...  I,  then,  and  those  who  think  with  me 
urge  a  new  departure  for  our  specialty ;  a  departure  which  shall  be 
general ;  a  departure  which  shall  distinguish  our  status  in  the  future, 
and  which  shall  make  us  worthy  children  of  the  common  Alma 
Mater  Medicinse."* 

"The  question  is  not  what  dentistry  has  been,  but  what  oral  sur- 
gery should  be;  not  what  are  the  qualifications  of  those  now  prac- 
ticing it,  but  what  is  its  legitimate  province,  and  what  the  requirements 
for  its  intelligent  practice.  We  see  no  force  in  the  assumption  that 
because  the  great  bulk  of  the  profession  have  heretofore  spent  their 
lives  in  a  monotonous  round  of  purely  mechanical  labor,  therefore 
they  must  continue  to  do  so  in  the  future.  We  claim  that  the  citcle 
of  jihysiological  and  pathological  sympathies  existing  between  the 
mouth  and  every  portion  of  the  economy  demands,  first,  a  general 
medical  education,  and  then  special  training,  tliat  the  liighest  results 
in  treatment  may  be  secured.  And  as  each  vear  witnesses  a  more 
thorough  educational   training,  so  will  the   field  inevitably  widen, 

*  Transactions  of  the  New  York  Odontologieal  Society  for  1874,  p.  132. 


DENTAL   EDUCATION.  269 

until  the  function  of  the  dentist  will  be  merged  into  a  practice  of 
which  that  of  to-day  is  but  a  feeble  indication.  .  .  .  As  to  the 
necessity  for  special  schools  for  any  department  of  medicine,  that 
is  a  question  open  for  discussion ;  but  a  complete  medical  education 
having  been  obtained  as  a  foundation,  on  this  basis  the  study  and 
practice  of  any  specialty  are  entitled  to  the  respect  and  confidence  not 
only  of  the  community,  but  of  all  who  base  their  claim  to  recognition 
on  a  like  scientific  preparation." — Dr.  J.  W.  White  * 

"  We  have  seen  that  the  dentist  is  a  special  physician  and  surgeon, 
and  we  are  therefore  forced  to  the  necessary  conclusion  that  he  who 
is  not  possessed  of  the  education  and  skill  requisite  to  make  him 
a  dental  physician  and  surgeon  is  not  a  dentist,  and  should  not  be 
recognized  as  such  by  the  public.  What,  then,  should  be  the  educa- 
tion of  the  coming  dentist  ?  Evidently,  in  general  terms,  such  as  to 
prepare  him  to  practice  medicine  and  surgery  as  a  dental  specialty. 
His  education  should  be  as  thorough  and  complete  as  that  of  the 
general  physician  and  surgeon.  He  need  not,  necessarily,  be  able  to 
prescribe  or  operate  for  the  cure  of  diseases  outside  of  his  specialty; 
but,  as  the  general  principles  and  the  fundamental  sciences  that 
underlie  and  form  the  superstructure  of  the  science  and  art  of  heal- 
ing are  the  same  in  all  departments  of  cure,  they  should  be  equally 
well  understood  by  all  curists." — 3Iichigan  State  Dental  Society. -\ 

"  Dentistry  is  a  specialty  of  medicine,  and  should  be  taught  as  such. 
That  it  is  a  specialty  of  medicine  is,  we  believe,  the  highest  claim 
that  has  ever  been  made  for  it.  If  this  claim  is  founded  upon  truth, 
what  is  the  legitimate  inference  as  to  how  a  knowledge  of  it  should 
be  acquired  ?  Surely  that  it  should  be  taught  and  learned  in  connec- 
tion with  a  medical  college,  as  are  other  specialties  of  medicine.  Men 
should  be  qualified  for  the  practice  of  dentistry,  as  is  the  surgeon, 
purist,  or  oculist,  upon  the  broad  basis  of  a  general  knowledge  of 
medicine." — Dr.  W.  H.  Morgan. % 

"If  we  desire  to  be  recognized  as  specialists  of  the  medical  profes- 
sion, we  should  first  make  ourselves  such.  If  we  desire  to  occupy 
exactly  the  same  position  that  other  medical  men  occupy,  we  should 
educate  ourselves  as  other  medical  men  are  educated ;  and  it  appears 
to  me  the  best  wav  to  do  this  is  in  a  medical  college.     The  medical 


*  Dental  Cosmos,  vol.  xv.  p.  642. 
f  Dental  Register  of  the  West,  vol.  xxv.  p.  239. 

X  Transactions  of  the  American  Dental  Association  for  1873,  p.  160,  Report  on 
Dental  Education. 


270  HISTORY   OF   AMERICAX   DENTISTRY. 

profession  appropriate  as  teachers  all  of  the  best  material,  aiul  if  we 
desire  to  have  the  benefit  of  those  teachings,  so  far  as  the  medical 
part  of  a  dental  education  is  concerned,  we  must  get  it  where  the  best 
teachers  are  employed," — Dr.  Judd.* 

In  conclusion  may  be  aptly  requoted,  as  a  correct  exjiression  of  the 
present  feeling  in  the  best  minds  of  the  profession  of  to-day,  that 
saying  of  Dr.  Horace  H.  Hayden's,  which,  though  enunciated  over 
thirty  years  ago,  still  retains  all  its  original  force  of  truth  and  earnest- 
ness of  high  purpose: — "We  assume  the  title  and  claim  the  rights 
and  privileges  of  being  the  studious,  diligent,  and  successful  cultiva- 
tors of  at  IciLst  a  branch  of  that  important,  noble,  and  only  divinely 
sanctioned  science  that  was  ever  pursued  and  cultivated  by  man, — 
the  science  of  medicine." 

*  Transactions  of  the  American  Dental  Association  for  1874,  p.  184. 


1 

i 


TABLE    OF    DENTAL    CENST'S. 


271 


TABLE  OF  DENTAL  CENSUS  FOR  1850,  1860,  AND  1870,  ARRANGED 

BY  STATES. 

COMPILED    FROM    THE    UNITED    STATES    CENSUS    REPORTS. 


NUMBER   OF  DENTISTS  IN 


STATES   AND   TERKTTOBIF..S. 


Alabama 

Arkansas 

California 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia , 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi.  

Mi.>;.euuri 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey 

New  York 

North  Carolina 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Khcde  Island 

South  Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Vermont , 

Virginia 

West  Virginia , 

Wisconsin 

District  of  Columbia. 
Territories 


Total. 


71 
5 
20 
55 
12 
4 
79 
56 
67 
10 

62 
62 
65 
81 
267 
32 

51 
39 


44 
61 

563 
34 

251 

566 
32 
53 
34 
13 
45 

140 

19 

25 

5 


2923 


Graduates  of  Dental  Colleges  since  last  census. 
Total  to  date 


145 

32 

121 

155 

21 

20 

160 

190 

154 

76 

14 

138 

89 

107 

114 

421 

131 

20 

103 

140 


87 
130 
964 

83 
407 

13 
806 

43 

84 
116 

65 

73 
196 

119 
48 
21 


5606 


1870. 


114 
39 

189 

158 
24 
20 

167 

5:.o 

342 
225 

72 
190 

99 
139 
179 
485 
259 

43 
113 
271 

14 
9 

77 

216 

1346 

95 
601 

29 
924 

55 

59 
133 
102 

88 
198 

27 
142 
*... 

76 


7839 

893 
8732 


*  Included  in  Territories. 


UNIVEP 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA   LIBRARY 
Los  Angeles 

This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 

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JUL  2  3  t'K''^ 

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i>" 


i-rary 


„2  WEEK 

ECE/veo 


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Form  L9-Series  4939 


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